Sancheriv's Campaign and Assyrian Sources/0

Sancheriv's Campaign and Assyrian Sources

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Overview

The story of Sancheriv's campaign against Yehuda is one of the most documented events in Tanakh

Biblical Sources

Tanakh discusses Sancheriv's campaign at length in Melakhim II 18-19, Yeshayahu 36-37, and Divrei HaYamim II 32.  Many other chapters throughout the first half of Yeshayahu also allude to the threat,¹ as does Mikhah.²

• Melakhim II  – The account in Melakhim is the fullest of the three sources, sharing how Chizkiyahu rebelled against Assyria, leading Sancheriv to retaliate in the fourteenth year of Chizkiyahu's reign. Sancheriv captured the fortified cities of Yehuda, prompting Chizkiyahu to send him a large tribute so that he would not attack Yerushalayim. For unknown reasons, the tribute did not have the desired effect and emissaries of Sancheriv returned to the city to convince the people to surrender.³  Chizkiyahu prays and Yeshayahu tells him not to fear, for Sancheriv will return to his land and die there. Though a brief respite is granted when the Assyrians are forced to deal with a Kushite threat, the Assyrians promise to return.  A second prayer leads to miraculous intervention as an angel strikes the Assyrian camp, killing 185,000 people and causing them to retreat.
• Yeshayahu – Yeshayahu's version of the campaign is almost identical to that of Melakhim, leaving out only the discussion of Chizkiyahu's original tribute. Other passages in the book further highlight the destruction wrought by Assyria or speak of the miraculous salvation, though Sancheriv himself is not explicitly mentioned.⁴ 
• Divrei HaYamim II – The account in Divrei HaYamim, though relatively brief,⁵ provides information regarding Chizkiyahu's preparations for Sancheriv's attack that is lacking in the other Biblical sources. Chizkiyahu fortified the city walls, made shields and weapons, appointed military captains and encouraged his soldiers. His most well known act is his plugging of the springs outside the city and diverting the water through "Chizkiyahu's tunnel"⁶ to ensure that the enemy could not benefit from the water⁷ while  Israel could sustain itself throughout a prolonged seige. 

Assyrian Sources

Sancheriv's campaign is well documented in Assyrian sources, as it is described in detail in the Assyrian annals and also portrayed pictorially in the Lakhish reliefs found in the palace of Nineveh.

• The Annals – Copies of Sancheriv's annals have been preserved on three monumental prisms⁸ known as the the Taylor Prism,⁹ the Jerusalem Prism,¹⁰ and the Oriental Institute Prism.¹¹ The inscriptions are almost identical¹² and constitute the latest and most comprehensive editions of the annals.¹³   According to the inscription, Sancheriv's campaign was an attempt to quell rebellions in Tzidon, Ahskelon, Ekron and Yehuda.  The four had formed a coalition against Assyria, with expectation of aid from Egypt. Chizkiyahu is mentioned in two sections.  In the context of the insurrection of Ekron, we are told that they overthrew their king, who had been a loyal vassal to Sancheriv and "handed him over to Hezekiah, the Jew" for safekeeping.  Later, Sancheriv tells of the invasion of Yehuda. He boasts of having laid siege to 46 cities, taking 200,150 captives, imprisoning Chizkiyahu in Jerusalem, and plundering the towns. He ends by describing the extensive tribute paid to him by Chizkiyahu. 
• Lakhish Relief – Sancheriv recorded his siege and victory over Lakhish, probably the second biggest city in Yehuda, in a series of wall reliefs that cover an entire room in his palace in Nineveh.¹⁴ Together they tell the story of the battle.  One panel depicts the Assyrian soldiers, some holding long spears, others armed with bows and arrows, and yet others with slingshots. Another section of the relief highlights the besieged city, depicting the ramps and battering rams used in the attack.  The relief then depicts the defeated Judeans, some dead, and others deported into exile. The Assyrians carry the looted booty, including huge goblets and even furniture. A final scene portrays Sancheriv on his throne, as prisoners bow in submission, or are executed, before him.  An inscription reads "Sennacherib, king of the world, king of Assyria, set up a throne and the booty of Lakhish passed before him."

Relationship Between the Sources

I. Reconciling Discrepancies: The Outcome of the Battle

Though the two sets of sources agree about the basic facts: Sancheriv attacked Yehuda, captured many of its cities, reached Yerushalayim and was paid a large tribute,¹⁵ they differ greatly regarding the outcome of the battle.  Only Tanakh records the miraculous salvation of Yehuda and defeat of the Assyrians.  The annals, in contrast, imply that Sancheriv was the victor.

Prof. Tadmor suggests that a close study of the literary structure of the annals reveals that in reality the two sources do not contradict at all: 

• Schematic  structure of the annals – Tadmor points out that the annals were written according to certain set formulas¹⁶ in which description of conquered territories always included discussion of the same four components: 1) the fate and punishment of the enemy king, 2) the capture and destruction of the capital and other cities, 3) replacement of the king by a loyal vassal, and 4) payment of tribute.¹⁷ 
• The exception: Yehuda – These elements are indeed found in Sancheriv's description of his conquest of Tzidon, Ahskelon, and Ekron, but, significantly, they are not all present in the discussion regarding Yehuda.  Chizkiyahu is not captured or killed, only imprisoned "in his royal residence, like a bird in a cage." There is no mention of the destruction of the capital city nor of replacement by a loyal vassal, because in the end Yerushalayim was not destroyed and Chizkiyahu was not ousted.
• Compensating for the missing victory – Prof. Tadmor suggests that Sancheriv found himself forced to compensate for a reality that did not match a literary formula designed to relay total victory.  He thus attempts to obscure the truth, and plays with his formulaic stucture.  Chizkiyahu is made a prisoner, but in Jerusalem. Loyal vassals are given control, but rather than replacing the king, they rule only over the smaller towns.  Most telling, though, is that Sancheriv appends to his annals an elaborate (and unparalleled) description of the tribute paid by Yehuda, as if listing all the material gains will hide the fact that Yerushalayim itself was not won.¹⁸ 
• The Lakhish relief – When deciding to commemorate his campaign in pictures in later years, of all the vanquished towns, Sancheriv chose to depict specifically his conquest of Lakhish. Tadmor suggests that his, too, might have been an attempt to cover up the missing victory. Lakhish, the most fortified and important city in Yehuda after Yerushalayim, was chosen in the capital's stead and depicted as the grandest of conquests.

II. Elucidating Tanakh

The Assyrian account of the campaign, together with the historical background that it provides, can shed light on certain aspects of Tanakh's narrative which are otherwise obscure, or mentioned only in passing:

• "הוּא הִכָּה אֶת פְּלִשְׁתִּים" – Immediately after sharing that Chizkiyahu rebelled against Assyria, Melakhim shares that he smote the Philistines: "הוּא הִכָּה אֶת פְּלִשְׁתִּים עַד עַזָּה".  The text does not explain the nature of the attack nor whether it was at all related to the rebellion.  In light of the annals, it is possible that the verse alludes to Chizkiayhu's role in the insurrection in Ekron.  Chizkiyahu did not rebel on his own, but rather as part of a coalition, and might have even been one of those organizing it. In an effort to strengthen the alliance, he helped the people of Ekron to overthrow their king who had been Sancheriv's loyal vassal, and perhaps even attacked other Philistine regions to ensure that they sided against Assyria.
• Egypt
• Lakhish
• Extent of devastation – Sefer Melakhim barely speaks of the devastation wrought on Yehuda as a whole, sharing that "עָלָה סַנְחֵרִיב מֶלֶךְ אַשּׁוּר עַל כׇּל עָרֵי יְהוּדָה הַבְּצֻרוֹת וַיִּתְפְּשֵׂם" but no more. Sancheriv's claim of smiting 46 cities and taking hundreds of thousands of prisoners might be hyperbolic, but it nonetheless testifies to the high degree of destruction in the country.

• birds in flight

 

¹ See notes below for examples.

² See Mikhah 1:9-14 and RadakMikhah 1:9About R. David Kimchi there.

³ The chapter discusses at length the various arguments made by Ravshakeh (Sancheriv's messenger) to dishearten the people and sway them to surrender. He tells them that their reliance on aid from Egypt is misguided, for Egypt will not be a reliable ally, and questions whether the Judeans have enough horses to battle Assyria.  He further points to Assyria's many previous conquests, suggesting that their is no reason that Yehuda's fate should differ.  He also invokes religious arguments, pointing out that he comes at the directive of Hashem.  As such, and in the light of the fact that the gods of all the other lands did not save their inhabitants, Yehuda has no reason to think they will be saved by Hashem.  In suggesting that the people submit, he alludes to Assyria's policy of deportation, telling the people: "וְלָקַחְתִּי אֶתְכֶם אֶל אֶרֶץ כְּאַרְצְכֶם".

⁴ See, for instance, Yeshayahu 7 and  Yeshayahu 8 which describe how Assyria has spread throughout Yehuda, reaching the capital: "עַד צַוָּאר יַגִּיעַ". Yeshayahu 10 speaks of Assyria's gloating and their ultimate destruction, while Yeshayahu 31 criticizes the nation's trust in the alliance with Egypt, but similarly shares that in the end: וְנָפַל אַשּׁוּר בְּחֶרֶב לֹא אִישׁ.
In other verses, though Assyria is not mentioned, they are likely the subject of Yeshayahu's words. Yeshayahu 1's description of the ravage done to Yehuda and Jerusalem's lone status would appear to match the era: "אַרְצְכֶם שְׁמָמָה עָרֵיכֶם שְׂרֻפוֹת אֵשׁ ... וְנוֹתְרָה בַת צִיּוֹן כְּסֻכָּה בְכָרֶם כִּמְלוּנָה בְמִקְשָׁה כְּעִיר נְצוּרָה."  Yeshayahu 29's discussion of the besieged city of Jerusalem and its miraculous salvation similarly appear to refer to Sancheriv.

⁵ It omits the discussion of Chizkiyahu's tribute and shortens the description of the Assyrian negotiations, Chizkiyahu's prayers and Yeshayahu's encouragement.

⁶ This engineering feat is also mentioned in Melakhim II 20:20 and in Yeshayahu 22:9-11. The tunnel was discovered in 1838 by E. Robinson, and is now open to the public in the City of David.  It stretches 533 meters from the Gichon Spring to the Shiloach Pool.  In 1880, an inscription was found on the walls of the tunnel which recounts how the men digging it worked from opposite directions and met in the middle.

⁷ See Sancheriv's boast, "אֲנִי קַרְתִּי וְשָׁתִיתִי מַיִם זָרִים" (Melakhim II 19:24), which suggests that in other battles, he did manage to benefit from his enemies' water sources.

⁸ All three prisms are hexagonal in shape, made of baked clay, and stand about one foot high. The inscriptions are written in Akkadian cuneiform.

⁹ The prism is currently housed in the British museum. It is named after Colonel R. Taylor who acquired it in 1830.

¹⁰ This copy is found in the Israel Museum.

¹¹ This monument is housed in the Oriental Institute in Chicago.

¹² The dates on the prisms attest that, despite the similarity, they were not all written at the same time, with the Jerusalem and Taylor Prisms dating to 691 BCE and the Oriental Institute Prism dating to 689 BCE.

¹³ There are many other copies of Sancheriv's annals, but most are fragmentary in nature.  These, in contrast, detail all eight of Sancheriv's campaigns, the third of which relates to his attack on Chizkiyahu and Yehuda.

¹⁴ The reliefs were discovered by A. Layard during excavation in what is known as Sancheriv's “Palace without Rival,” in Nineveh, in the mid-late 1840's.  They are currently housed in the British Museum.

¹⁵ Surprisingly, they even record similar figures, with Melakhim mentioning 30 talents of gold and 300 talents of silver and the annals recording 30 talents of gold and 800 of silver.

¹⁶ Another examples of the standardized description is the fact that in all the annals the king is depicted as an epic hero, the enemy as an arrogant sinner and the conquest as a holy war.

¹⁷ It is for this reason that the annals are arranged topically, by destroyed city, rather than chronologically.

¹⁸ By the description of each of the other kingdoms conquered, Sancheriv suffices by saying, "and [I] imposed upon him tribute (due) to me."   When discussing Yehuda, on the other hand, there is an entire list of the items given in tribute, which extends for several lines in the annals!