ANE:Sefer Melakhim and the Ancient Near East/0

Sefer Melakhim and the Ancient Near East

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Archaeological Artifacts Overview

The following is a list of archaeological artifacts, including monumental inscriptions, reliefs, annals, and chronicles relevant to the study of Sefer Melakhim.  

• Shoshenq I Inscription and Relief  –  The inscription and image is part of a series of triumphal reliefs depicted on the Bubasite Portal of the Temple of Amun at Karnak.  It lists the places conquered by the Egyptian king, Shoshenq I (identified with the Biblical Shishak), in his military campaign against the kingdoms of Yehuda and Yisrael c. 925 BCE.  As such, it serves as an additional source to understand Shishak's invasion of Yehuda discussed in Melakhim I 14 and Divrei HaYamim II 12.  For elaboration, see Shishak's Campaign and Egyptian Sources

• Victory Stele of Shishak at Megiddo – A portion of a commemorative stele containing the cartouche of Shoshenq I was found in Megiddo by the Oriental Institute excavations in 1926.¹ Though the stele preserves very little beyond the king's name, it provides further evidence that Shishak had invaded the kingdom of Yisrael.  For a discussion of how this relates to Shishak's invasion of Yehuda mentioned in Tanakh, see Shishak's Campaign and Egyptian Sources.
• Kurkh Monolith – The stele was discovered by J. Taylor in 1861 and is housed in the British Museum. It describes the various military campaigns that Shalmaneser III of Assyria undertook in the first six years of his reign (from 858-853 BCE).  These included the Battle of Qarqar, in which a coalition of 12 kings, including Hadadezer of Aram and Achav of Israel, joined to fight against Assyria. The monolith, thus, provides historical background regarding the relations between Aram and Israel in the time of Achav, elucidating events mentioned in Melakhim I 20 and 22.  For discussion, see Achav, Aram, and the Battle of Qarqar.
  
• Mesha Stele – The Mesha stele is a victory monument erected by Mesha, King of Moav (9th c. BCE), discovered by F. Klein in 1868 in Dhiban. It is presently in the Louvre Museum in Paris.  The inscription describes Mesha's triumph over Israel and relates to the Moabite revolt and the ensuing war with Yehoram, Yehoshafat and Edom described in Melakhim II 3.  For elaboration, see The Moabite Rebellion and the Mesha Stele.
• Tel Dan Stele – The fragments of the stele were discovered during excavations led by A. Biran in Tel Dan, in 1993-1994.  It is housed in the Israel Museum.  Though the names on the stele are not completely legible, the inscription has been understood to speak of an Aramean victory over Yehoram, king of Yisrael and Achazyah, king of "the House of David".  If so, it would correspond to Melakhim II 8's mention of a battle between Chazael of Aram and the two kings.  The mention of the "House of David"  is considered by many to be the earliest extra-Biblical reference to the Davidic dynasty. See Chazael and the Tel Dan Stele for more.
• Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III – The obelisk was discovered in Tel Nimrud by archaeologist A. Layard in 1846 and is currently in the British Museum. It speaks of the military campaigns of Shalmaneser III of Assyria (858-824 BCE). Both Hadadezer (Ben Hadad of Tanakh) and Chazael of Aram are mentioned among his oppenets. In addition, one of the bas-reliefs on the obelisk depicts a receipt of tribute with a caption that reads: "The tribute of Yehu, son of Omri..."² The inscriptions, thus, provide historical background regarding international relations during the period of Beit Achav and Yehu discussed at the end of Melakhim I through the first half of Mekakhim II.  See Aram's Relations with Israel in Assyrian Sources.
• Saba'a Stele – The stele was discovered in 1905 and tells of the reign of Adad-nirari III of Assyria (811 to 783 BC), providing background regarding Assyrian-Aramean relations during the reigns of Yehoachaz, Yoash and Yerovam.
• Nimrud Slab – The slab was discovered in 1854 in by W. Loftus in his excavations at Nimrud. It contains an inscription detailing the conquests of Adad Nirari III, providing background regarding Assyrian-Aramean relations during the reigns of Yehoachaz, Yoash and Yerovam.
• Tell al-Rimah Stele – The stele was found in 1969 at Tell al-Rimah in Iraq. It depicts the Assyrian king, Adad Nirari III and tells of his campaigns to the west, mentioning tribute paid to him by "Yoash the Shomroni".  [This tribute is not mentioned in Tanakh.]
• The Iran Stele - This is the only victory monument yet discovered from the reign of Tiglat-Pileser III.  It was erected c. 737 BCE and recounts the military achievements of the first nine years of his reign.³ One section of the inscription comprises a list of kings who paid tribute to Assyria, and includes both "Menahem of Samaria" and "Rezin of Damascus".  This matches Melakhim II 15:19-21 which shares that Menachem paid tribute to "Pul".⁴  [Tribute received from these two kings is also mentioned in Tiglat-Pileser's annals from 738 BCE (ANET 283).]
• Annals and Summary Inscriptions of Tiglat-Pileser III –  Tiglath-Pileser’s palace in Kalah was first excavated by Austin Henry Layard in 1847, where he discovered several of the annals and summary inscriptions⁵ detailing the king's reign. The following sources speak of interactions between Assyria, Aram, Yisrael and Yehuda, providing background regarding the Aramean-Israelite alliance against Achaz, and his call to Assyria for aid, described in Melakhim II 15:29-30, 16:5-9, Divrei HaYamim II 28:5-21 and Yeshayahu 7-8.
• Tiglat-Pileser's summary inscription no. 7 (also referred to as Nimrud Tablet K.3751) speaks of tribute given by "Yehoachaz (=Achaz) of Yehuda."⁶ This is  the first known archeological reference to Yehudah.
• Summary Inscriptions no. 4, 9 and 13 speak of a coalition of kings from the west, including Rezin of Aram and Pekach of Israel, who joined to fight against Assyria, but were subdued, their cities conquered and their possessions taken. Rezin was killed and Aram annexed to assyira, while Pekah was replaced with Hoshea.
• Annals no. 18, 23, and 24 further describe the war against Aram and Yisrael, including the exile of cities in the Galil (see Melakhim II 16:29-20).

• Stele of Zakkur
• Annals of Sargon II (Khorsabad Annals)
• Azekah Inscription
• Sennacherib's Annals
• Siloam inscription
• Lakhish relief
• LMLK seals
• Cylinders of Nabonidus
• Babylonian Chronicles
• Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets
• Lakhish Ostraca
• Bullae and seals

¹ It is housed in the Oriental Institute, Chicago.

² This tribute is not mentioned in Tanakh.

³ It was preserved in three fragments, two of which have been acquired by the Israel Museum.

⁴ It seems that Tiglat-Pileser's birthname was Pulu, and that when he usurped the throne he took on the name Tiglat-Pileser, to link himself to some of the earlier mighty kings of Assyria.

⁵ While the annals record the king's accomplishments chronologically, the summary inscriptions record them geographically.

⁶ The clay tablet with the inscription is housed n the British Museum.