ANE:Sefer Melakhim and the Ancient Near East/0

Sefer Melakhim and the Ancient Near East

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Inscriptions, Annals and Chronicles

• Merneptah Stele – The stele was discovered by Flinders Petrie in 1896 at Thebes, and is now housed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The inscription lists the military victories of Merneptah of Egypt who reigned 1213-1203 BCE. According to a majority of scholars, it contains the earliest extra-Biblical reference to Israel.  The hieroglyphics of line 27 having been deciphered as "“Israel is wasted, its grain/seed is not."
• Shoshenq I Inscription and Relief  –  This relief is part of a series of triumphal reliefs depicted on the Bubasite Portal of the Temple of Amun at Karnak.  It lists the places conquered by the Egyptian king, Shoshenq I (identified with the Biblical Shishak), in his military campaign against the kingdoms of Yehuda and Yisrael c. 925 BCE.  As such, it serve as an additional source to understand Shishak's invasion of Yehuda discussed in Melakhim I 14 and Divrei HaYamim II 12.  For elaboration, see Shishak's Campaign and Egyptian Sources
• Victory Stele of Shishak at Megiddo – A portion of a commemorative stele containing the cartouche of Shoshenq I was found in Megiddo by the Oriental Institute excavations in 1926.¹ Though the stele preserves very little beyond the king's name, it provides further evidence that Shishak had invaded the kingdom of Yisrael.  For a discussion of how this relates to the invasion of Yehuda in Tanakh, see Shishak's Campaign and Egyptian Sources.
• Kurkh Monolith – The stele was discovered by J. Taylor in 1861 and is housed in the British Museum. It describes the various military campaigns that Shalmaneser III of Assyria undertook in the first six years of his reign (from 858-853 BCE), including the Battle of Qarqar, in which a coalition of 12 kings, including Hadadezer of Aram and Achav of Israel, joined to fight against Assyria. The monolith provides historical background regarding the relations between Aram and Israel in the time of Achav, elucidating events mentioned in Melakhim I 20 and 22.  For discussion, see Achav, Aram, and the Battle of Qarqar.
  
• Mesha Stele – The Mesha stele is a victory monument erected by Mesha, King of Moav (9th c. BCE), discovered by F. Klein in 1868 in Dhiban. It is presently in the Louvre Museum in Paris.  The inscription describes Mesha's triumph over Israel and relates to the Moabite revolt and the ensuing war with Yehoram, Yehoshafat and Edom described in Melakhim II 3.  For elaboration, see The Moabite Rebellion and the Mesha Stele.
• Tel Dan Stele – The fragments of the stele were discovered during excavations led by A. Biran in Tel Dan, in 1993-1994.  It is housed in the Israel Museum.  Though the names are not completely legible, it appears to speak of an Aramean victory over Yehoram, king of Yisrael and Achazyah, king of "the House of David".  If so, it would seem to correspond to Melakhim II 8's mention of a battle between Chazael of Aram and the two kings.  Its mention of the "House of David"  is considered by many to be the earliest extra-Biblical reference to the Davidic dynasty. See Chazael and the Tel Dan Stele for more.
• Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III – The obelisk was discovered in Tel Nimrud by archaeologist A. Layard in 1846 and is currently in the British Museum. It speaks of the military campaigns of Shalmaneser III of Assyria (858-824 BCE). Both Hadadezer (Ben Hadad of Tanakh) and Chazael of Aram are mentioned by name. In addition, one of the bas-reliefs on the obelisk depicts a receipt of tribute with a caption that reads: "The tribute of Yehu, son of Omri..." The inscriptions, thus, provide historical background regarding international relations during the period of Beit Achav and Yehu discussed at the end of Melakhim I through the first half of Mekakhim II.  See Aram's Relations with Israel in Assyrian Sources.
• Saba'a Stele – The stele was discovered in 1905 and tells of the reign of Adad-nirari III of Assyria (811 to 783 BC), providing background regarding Asyrian-Aramean relations during the reigns of Yehoachaz, Yoash and Yerovam.
• Nimrud Slab – The slab was discovered in 1854 in by W. Loftus in his excavations at Nimrud. It contains an inscription detailing the conquests of Adad Nirari III, providing background regarding Assyrian-Aramean relations during the reigns of Yehoachaz, Yoash and Yerovam.
• Tell al-Rimah Stele – The stele was found in 1969 at Tell al-Rimah in Iraq. It depicts the Assyrian king, Adad Nirari III and tells of his campaigns to the west, mentioning tribute paid to him by "Yoash the Shomroni".
• Nimrud Tablet K.3751
• Annals of Tiglat-Pileser III
• The Iran Stele - This is the only victory monument yet discovered from the reign of Tiglat-Pileser III.  It was erected c. 737 BCE and recounts the military achievements of the first nine years of his reign.² One section of the inscription comprises a list of kings who paid tribute to Assyria, and includes both "Menahem of Samaria" and "Rezin of Damascus".  This matches Melakhim II 15:19-21 which shares that Menachem paid tribute to "Pul".³
• Stele of Zakkur
• Annals of Sargon II (Khorsabad Annals)
• Azekah Inscription
• Sennacherib's Annals
• Siloam inscription
• Lakhish relief
• LMLK seals
• Cylinders of Nabonidus
• Babylonian Chronicles
• Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets
• Lakhish Ostraca
• Bullae and seals

¹ It is housed in the Oriental Institute, Chicago.

² It was preserved in three fragments, two of which have been acquired by the Israel Museum.

³ It seems that Tiglat-Pileser's birthname was Pulu, and that when he usurped the throne he took on the name Tiglat-Pileser, to link himself to some of the earlier mighty kings of Assyria.