Ancient Near Eastern Index – Parashat Ki Tisa/0

Ancient Near Eastern Index – Parashat Ki Tisa

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Seven Nations

• Shemot 33:2 and 34:11 list the nations that Hashem will drive out from Canaan.  Notably, there are only six nations listed, with the Girgashites missing from the verses.  See The Nations of Canaan and the Girgashites, by Prof. Yoel Elitzur, for discussion of what happened to the Girgashites, based on Rabbinic as well as extrabiblical and archaeological sources. 

Shabbat

• See Tanakh and the Literature of the Ancient Near East (3), by R. Amnon Bazak, for analysis of the claim that ancient Mesopotamian literature contains parallels to the institution of Shabbat. R. Bazak demonstrates the significant differences between the Biblical and Mesopotamian institutions.¹ While the latter were very much related to the lunar calendar and considered days of bad luck, appeasement to the gods, and meant for only a small segment of society, the Biblical Shabbat is unrelated to the lunar cycle, is considered a day of blessing and affirmation of faith in Hashem as creator, and is an egalitarian institution applying to everyone from servants to rulers.

Census-taking

• See Census and Ritual Expiation in Mari and Israel, by E.A. Speiser, for analysis of how evidence from Mari may shed light on both practical and religious aspects of census-taking in Tanakh, and vice versa. Through the Mari Texts, Speiser attempts to elucidate both the terms "פקד" and  "נשא ראש" and the reason for the expiating aspects of census-taking. He concludes that "פקד" actually means to "enroll" and involves the writing down of names, a deed which was deemed ominous in the ancient near east.

Treaties and Covenants

• Archaeological finds have revealed many treaties from the Ancient Near East which have much in common with their Biblical counterparts. Many of the treaties found share certain set elements including: a preamble introducing the parties to the treaty, a historical introduction, the treaty stipulations, provisions for public reading of the treaty, divine witnesses, and curses and blessings. These components have clear echoes in the covenants of Tanakh, including that of Sinai, Moav and Shekhem. For discussion, see Treaties in Tanakh and the Ancient Near East.
• See God’s Alliance With Man and listen to What Type of Relationship is a Brit, both by R. Dr. Joshua Berman, for analysis of how the covenant of Sinai can be more deeply understood in light of ancient Near Eastern vassal treaties. In the context of this discussion, R. Dr. Berman explains the laws of pilgrimage and specifically the phrase "יֵרָאֶה כׇּל זְכוּרְךָ אֶל פְּנֵי הָאָדֹן י״י" in light of similar stipulations in secular treaties, where the subordinate king is required to visit the court of his sovereign, to “look upon the face of his majesty."

¹ There is a day known as "sappatu" in the Assyrian Babylonian calendar, defined as the "day of rest for the heart." Another source speaks of dividing the lunar calendar into quarters of seven days on which certain activities were forbidden to the elite of society.