Chronological and Thematic Order/2

Chronological and Thematic Order

Exegetical Approaches

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Overview

Though the Biblical text sets chronological order as the norm, in several instances it nonetheless veers from the true order of events. Often, the displacement is somewhat technical and it is only a secondary component of a story which is out of chronological order. A minor detail might be moved from its proper chronological place elsewhere to complete the central narrative (להשלים את הענין), serving either as an introduction in the beginning of a unit or as an epilogue at the end. In other instances, an otherwise intrusive piece of a story is moved away from the core unit to serve either as a prologue or an appendix where it won't interrupt the main storyline (לא להפסיק את הענין).

In a second category of cases, chronology is sacrificed for thematic unity.  This is especially evident when Tanakh recounts two stories which overlap in time.  Rather than interweaving the two stories, Tanakh will focus on each individually, speaking of the same overall time period from different vantage points.  It might distinguish between protagonists, a figure's personal and political role, or differing literary genres. Even when two units do not overlap in time, Tanakh might prefer to arrange certain units thematically, grouping together similar events, related laws or the like.

A third goal of achronology might be to impart homiletical messages.  By juxtaposing material which would otherwise not be linked, lessons regarding proper behavior, Biblical characters, or Hashem's ways can be learned.

Technical Displacement: Minor Details

In many cases, the majority and core of a given story is recorded in its proper chronological place and it is just one or two secondary components which are displaced. The displaced unit might be moved from elsewhere to join and thereby complete the central story ("להשלים את הענין") or it might be separated from the main narrative so as not to interrupt the story line ("לא להפסיק את הענין"):

Preludes and Epilogues: "להשלים את הענין"

A subordinate component of a story might be moved from its proper chronological place so as to complete a central narrative. This might take the form of a prelude or heading before the main story or an epilogue or summation at the end.

Prelude

An event which occurred earlier is displaced to serve as an introduction and/or provide necessary background to a later story.

Birth of Kayin and Hevel (Bereshit 4:1) – According to R. Yochanan b. Chanina in Bavli Sanhedrin,¹ the birth of Kayin and Hevel took place already in the Garden of Eden, before the expulsion.² It is mentioned afterwards, in Chapter 4, only because the fact is necessary to open the Kayin and Hevel story.

"לֶךְ לְךָ" (Bereshit 12:1) – R. SaadiaCommentary Bereshit 11:31About R. Saadia Gaon, Ibn EzraBereshit Second Commentary 11:32Bereshit First Commentary 12:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra, and RadakBereshit 12:1About R. David Kimchi assert that Hashem's command of "לֶךְ לְךָ" was originally given to Avraham in Ur Kasdim when he was 70,³ and thus really belongs with the description of Terach and his family departing for Charan in Bereshit 11:31.⁴ It is mentioned at the beginning of Bereshit 12:1-5, though, to introduce the Avraham narrative and the completion of his journey to Canaan.⁵  For further discussion, see Avraham's Aliyah.

Sarah conceives (Bereshit 21:1-2) – According to several commentators,⁶ Sarah had conceived before or in the middle of the story of Avimelekh described in Bereshit 20.⁷  The fact is recorded here, though, so as to introduce the story of Yitzchak's birth and weaning.

Marriage of Amram and Yocheved (Shemot 2:1) – R"Y Bekhor ShorShemot 2:1About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor maintains that Amram and Yocheved had married before the decree of Paroh discussed in Shemot 1.⁸ Their marriage is mentioned later so as to properly open the story of Moshe's birth and its aftermath.

"וַיֹּאמֶר י״י אֶל מֹשֶׁה עוֹד נֶגַע אֶחָד אָבִיא עַל פַּרְעֹה" (Shemot 11:1-2) – Ibn EzraShemot Second Commentary 12:50Devarim 31:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra⁹ suggests that this statement refers to Hashem's earlier informing of Moshe of the Plague of Firstborns (when en route from Midyan in Shemot 4:23).¹⁰  It is repeated here to introduce Moshe's statement to Paroh "כֹּה אָמַר י״י כַּחֲצֹת הַלַּיְלָה אֲנִי יוֹצֵא בְּתוֹךְ מִצְרָיִם. וּמֵת כׇּל בְּכוֹר" to remind the reader that this plague was indeed already announced by Hashem.

Pesach (Bemidbar 9) – AbarbanelBemidbar 9About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel suggests that the story of the impure petitioners who could not participate in the Pesach of the first year is mentioned in the beginning of Bemidbar 9, not because it occurred there, but only to serve as a prelude to the main story of the unit, Pesach Sheni.¹¹ Without the background of the events of the first month, the request of the impure would not make sense to the reader.  For elaboration, see Chronology of Bemidbar 1 – 10.

Ceremony on Har Eival (Yehoshua 8:30-35) – According to R. D"Z Hoffmann, it seems that most of the ceremony took place in Yehoshua 8, where written, but the writing on the stones (8:32), took place earlier,¹² immediately after the nation crossed the Jordan.¹³  This point, though, is nonetheless included in Yehoshua 8 to complete the story,  providing the details of the preparatory stage of the ceremony.  See When Did the Ceremony on Mt. Eival Occur for elaboration and other approaches regarding the timing of the ceremony.

Shemuel's death (Shemuel I 28:3) – The death of Shemuel is repeated in the beginning of the story of the Ba'alat Ha'Ov even though it occurred back in Shemuel I 25,¹⁴ as it provides important background to understand the main story about the revival of the prophet.¹⁵

Epilogue

A component of a story which is only to occur later is moved earlier to provide closure to the main unit.

Death notices – The deaths of the various characters in Sefer Bereshit are recorded already when they fade from the scene,¹⁶ rather then in the middle of later narratives when they chronologically occurred.¹⁷ The achronology is motivated by a desire to provide closure to each protagonist's individual story.¹⁸

The manna (Shemot 16:32-35) – Shemot 16 tells the story of the manna's initial arrival in the first year in the Wilderness, but it also mentions its later preservation near the Ark¹⁹ and its being eaten throughout the forty years of wandering. Despite the fact that these added details occur only later, they are placed here to close the unit.²⁰  [For a spectrum of opinions regarding the specific timing of the events mentioned in the epilogue, see Epilogue to the Manna Story.]

Recording the battle of Amalek (Shemot 17:14) – After the battle of Amalek, Hashem tells Moshe to record the event for posterity in "the book" and to speak to Yehoshua about wiping out Amalek. Ibn EzraShemot Short Commentary 17:14About R. Avraham ibn Ezra posits that this was first commanded in the fortieth year.²¹  In order to finish the story, however, the directive is recorded here.

Yitro's departure (Shemot 18:27) – ShadalBereshit 11:32Bemidbar 8:7Bemidbar 20:1About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto²² posits that the story of Yitro's arrival, advice, and its implementation all occurred where found, in Shemot 18 before the Revelation at Sinai, but that Yitro's departure took place only later. Though Yitro first left in the second year, the fact is recorded already in Shemot to "complete the story".²³  [See Chronology – Shemot 18 for elaboration and for those who maintain that other parts of the story, too, might only be mentioned here to "finish the narrative".]

Incense altar  (Shemot 30:1-10) – See the discussion in Purpose and Placement of the Incense Altar²⁴ for the possibility that the directive to build the Mishkan preceded the Sin of the Golden Calf, but that the Incense Altar was commanded only in its aftermath.²⁵  If so, the proper placement of the command should be after the sin in Shemot 34, but it is mentioned earlier to close the unit on the vessels of the Mishkan.²⁶

Erecting the Tabernacle (Shemot 40) – According to those who maintain that the Days of Consecration of the Mishkan (described in Vayikra 8-9) began on the 23rd of Adar,²⁷ the description of the erection of the Mishkan on the first of Nissan (described in Shemot 40) is out of place. One might suggest that it is mentioned here only to serve as an epilogue to the unit of chapters discussing the building of the Mishkan.²⁸

Clouds on the Mishkan (Shemot 40:36-38) – After discussing the erection of the Tabernacle in Shemot 40, the final verses of the chapter speak of the role to be played by the cloud as an indicator of when to travel, adding that this was a constant throughout their journeys in the Wilderness (ie. throughout the forty years). Though this refers to what is to occur in the future, it is mentioned here as a conclusion to the discussion regarding the cloud of glory.

Conquest of Canaanite cities (Bemidbar 21:3) – RambanBemidbar 21:1About R. Moshe b. Nachman suggests that the conquest of the Canaanite cities mentioned here occurred first in Shofetim 1:16-17.²⁹  It is mentioned already here, though, to complete the story, telling the reader how the nation's vow was fulfilled.

Conquests of Machir (Bemidbar 32:39-42) ³⁰ – RalbagBemidbar 32:39About R. Levi b. Gershom suggests that the conquests of Menashe mentioned here really took place during the war against Sichon discussed in Bemidbar 21.³¹  A student of R. Saadia Gaonפירוש תלמיד רס״ג דברי הימים א ב׳:כ״ב goes even further to suggest that these cities had been conquered by the tribe of Menashe already during the era of Yosef's reign in Egypt.³²  According to both, the event is mentioned here only to complete the story and explain why Menashe, too, got land on the eastern bank of the Jordan.  For further discussion, see Menashe Joins Reuven and Gad.

Headings

An event which is soon to be discussed in the text is mentioned already in the heading of the unit, not because it takes place then, but to let the reader know what is to come.  This phenomenon often takes the form of "כלל ופרט", a general formulation followed by details.

"וַיָּרׇץ לָבָן אֶל הָאִישׁ" (Bereshit 24:29-30) – Bereshit 24:29-30 reads, "וַיָּרׇץ לָבָן אֶל הָאִישׁ... וַיְהִי כִּרְאֹת אֶת הַנֶּזֶם וְאֶת הַצְּמִדִים...  וַיָּבֹא אֶל הָאִישׁ".  R. SaadiaCommentary Bereshit 24:29About R. Saadia Gaon and others claim that, despite the order of the verses,  Lavan only ran after seeing the jewelry on Rivka. Shadal Bereshit 24:30About R. Shemuel David Luzzattoexplains that the verses are not really achronological, but rather verse 29 is a general statement which is explained by verse 30.³³

"וַיֵּלֶךְ חָרָנָה" (Bereshit 28:10) – Even though Yaakov does not arrive in Charan until Bereshit 29, already in Bereshit 28:10 the reader is told "וַיֵּלֶךְ חָרָנָה". R. Avraham b. HaRambamBereshit 28:10About R. Avraham Maimonides³⁴ explains that this is a "כלל ופרט"; the story opens with a general heading sharing that Yaakov went from Beer Sheva to Charan, then steps back to explain what happened along the way.³⁵

"וַיָּשֶׁב מֹשֶׁה אֶת דִּבְרֵי הָעָם אֶל י״י" (Shemot 19:8-9) – RashbamShemot 19:8-9Vayikra 10:2About R. Shemuel b. Meir suggests that the repetition in these two verses of the fact that Moshe relayed the nation's words to Hashem  is another example of the Torah being "כולל ואחר כך מפרש".  Moshe did not relay the nation's words in verse 8, but only the next day after Hashem spoke to him about the upcoming revelation.

"וַיַּסֵּב אֱלֹהִים אֶת הָעָם דֶּרֶךְ הַמִּדְבָּר יַם סוּף" (Shemot 13:18) – It is possible that this, too, is simply a heading for the unit and that Hashem first "turned the people around" in Shemot 14:2 when He commanded, "דַּבֵּר אֶל בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל וְיָשֻׁבוּ וְיַחֲנוּ לִפְנֵי פִּי הַחִירֹת".

"וַתֵּצֵא אֵשׁ מִלִּפְנֵי י״י וַתֹּאכַל עַל הַמִּזְבֵּחַ" (Vayikra 9:24) – According to RashbamShemot 19:8-9Vayikra 9:24Vayikra 10:2About R. Shemuel b. Meir,  this verse is a heading for the story of Nadav and Avihu and not a statement of what happened already in Chapter 9. In other words, the Divine fire did not consume Aharon's offerings before the story of Nadav and Avihu, but rather in the middle of it.  According to his reading, the fire of Vayikra 9:24 and 10:2 are identical; en route to consuming Aharon's offerings, the fire killed Nadav and Avihu.  For elaboration and the ramifications of this reading for understanding the deaths of Nadav and Avihu, see Why Were Nadav and Avihu Killed.

Service of Yom Hakippurim (Vayikra 16) – In the description of the cultic service of Yom HaKipurrim in Vayikra 16, there is a dual doubling. Twice the chapter mentions the sacrificing of Aharon's sin-offering of the cow (in verses 6 and 11) and twice it mentions the sacrificing of the nation's sin-offering of the goat (in verses 9 and 15).  It is possible that the offerings are really first sacrificed in verses 11 and 15 and that verses  6-9 are simply an abstract of what is to come.  They introduce the sacrifices and atonement to be achieved and then the verses backtrack to provide the details of the procedure.

"וַיָּשֶׁב אֶת אֶלֶף וּמֵאָה הַכֶּסֶף לְאִמּוֹ" (Shofetim 17:3:4) – In both Shofetim 17:3 and 17:4 the verses speak of Michah returning the money he stole to his mother. RashbamShemot 19:8-9About R. Shemuel b. Meir suggests that verse 3 is a general statement of what took place, while the following verse backtracks, providing the details.³⁶

Summaries

An episode which occurred and was explicitly mentioned earlier in Tanakh is repeated in order to serve as a summary to a unit.

Hardening of heart  (Shemot 11:9-10) – RashbamShemot 11:9About R. Shemuel b. Meir³⁷ asserts that the statement "וַיֹּאמֶר י״י אֶל מֹשֶׁה לֹא יִשְׁמַע אֲלֵיכֶם פַּרְעֹה" in Shemot 11:9 is not a warning that Paroh will harden his heart now, after the Plague of Firstborns,³⁸ but rather a statement referring to what happened in the previous nine plagues. Though this has already been stated, the fact is repeated here as a summation (together with verse 10) for all the plagues.

Esav's move to Seir (Bereshit 36:6-8) – Hoil MosheBereshit 32:4About R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi suggests that Esav's uprooting from Canaan and moving to Edom mentioned in Bereshit 36:6-8 actually occurred earlier, as attested to by the fact that Esav was already living in Seir in Bereshit 32. It is repeated (and elaborated upon) here only as part of the closing summary of the Esav story.

Prologues and Appendices: "לא להפסיק את הענין"

Secondary narrative components might be moved to form a prologue at the very beginning of a unit or an appendix at the end because setting them in their proper chronological place in the middle of the central unit would otherwise break the flow of the main narrative . The episode or topic which is displaced is either irrelevant to the main theme or message of the unit, of lesser import, or of a different literary character.

Prologues

An event is moved from its correct chronological place later in the text and placed at the very beginning of the unit where it will not disrupt the main topic.

Bemidbar 1-6 – Though the opening census or Sefer Bemidbar is dated to the second month (Bemidbar 1:1-3), and really occurs in between the events of Chapters 9 and 10, placing such an extensive list of numbers there would break up the main narrative of the book. As such, the Torah might have preferred to incorporate the non-narrative material of Chapters 1-6 as a prologue to the book where it would not interrupt the stories of the Wilderness  journey. See Chronology of Bemidbar 1 – 10 for elaboration.

Appendices

An episode is moved from its correct chronological place earlier in the narrative and placed at the very end of the unit where it will not disrupt the main topic.

Marriage to Keturah (Bereshit 25:1-6) – According to ShadalBereshit 11:32Shemot 18:1Bemidbar 8:7Bemidbar 20:1About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto, Avraham's marriage to Keturah (and the birth of their children) occurred before Sarah's death and not where it is found.³⁹ Since the story is tangential to the main narrative which focuses on the formation of the Nation of Israel, it is put as an appendix to the Avraham stories rather than in its proper chronological place. [For elaboration and dissenting opinions, see Avraham's Many Wives]

Genealogy lists (Bereshit 25, 36) – The genealogies of Yishmael and Esav are listed as appendices to the Avraham and Yitzchak stories respectively.⁴⁰  Even though some of their descendants were likely born during the lives of their grandparents,⁴¹ the list is mentioned only at the end of the entire cycle of stories so as not to interrupt the main narrative which focuses on the chosen rather than rejected lines.

Laws of the Red Heifer (Bemidbar 19) – ShadalBemidbar 8:7Bemidbar 20:1About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto suggests that the laws of the red heifer were really given at some point before the purification of the Levites described in Bemidbar 8,⁴² but they first appear in Bemidbar 19 as an appendix to the stories of the second year so as not interrupt the earlier storyline.

Moshe's blessings (Devarim 33) – Ibn EzraDevarim 31:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra suggests that Moshe's final blessings to the nation were given over beforehand, in Devarim 31, when he went to encourage the nation and Yehoshua.⁴³ Due to the unique poetic character of the speech which would be intrusive in place, they are pushed to the end of the book.

End of Sefer Shofetim – Several commentators⁴⁴ assume that the stories of the "Idol of Michah" and the "Concubine of Givah" discussed in Shofetim 17-21 occurred much earlier in Sefer Shofetim.⁴⁵ However, as they deviate from the cycle of sin, oppression, return, and salvation that serves as the core of the book, they are set apart and recorded only at the end.

End of Sefer Shemuel – The composition of David's song of Shemuel I 22 and the feats of David's warriors listed in Shemuel II 23 likely occurred at various points earlier in David's career,⁴⁶ but are grouped as appendices at the end of the book. Here, too, this might be due to the unique nature of the material (poetry / list) and different focus (David's men rather than David) which set them apart from the narrative of the rest of the book.

Thematic Arrangement: Parallel Units

Tanakh will often prefer thematic ordering over strict chronology, juxtaposing related material even if this means not adhering to a historical timeline. In contrast to the above cases, in these instances both the displaced and chronological components tend to be of equal import.

Overlapping Stories

A preference for thematic ordering is often evident when components of two independent stories overlap in time. Tanakh will focus on each story individually, recounting them in parallel units, rather than constantly switching back and forth between the two. As such, the same overall time period might be discussed from different vantage points in the textual equivalent of a split screen, with material grouped by varying protagonists, realms of life, literary genre or other factors.

Figures

Tanakh will often focus on one individual protagonist at a time, even if this means compromising on chronological order.

Births of Yaakov's children (Bereshit 29-20) – A simple reading of Bereshit 29-30 might imply that Yaakov's twelve children were born consecutively.  Yet as this would seem to leave just a little over 6 years for the births of all 12 children,⁴⁷ several commentators suggest that some of the births must have overlapped.⁴⁸ Tanakh, though, prefers to separate the stories of each mother, listing each of their births together and only then moving on to the next mother. See opinions in The Births and Relative Ages of Yaakov's Children for elaboration and other approaches.

Yehuda vs. Yosef (Bereshit 37-39) – The story of Yehuda's marriage and children (Bereshit 38) takes place over many years and parts of it likely overlapped with the stories of both Yosef's sale (Bereshit 37) and Yosef's stay in Egypt (Bereshit 39ff).⁴⁹  Tanakh, though, separates the narratives of the two figures, placing the entire Yehuda tale together so as not to have to constantly interweave the two story lines.⁵⁰ [See The Births and Relative Ages of Yaakov's Children and Purpose of the Yehuda and Tamar Story for more.]

The Nation and elders at Revelation (Shemot 19 and 24) – According to the first opinion in Mekhilta DeRabbi Yishmael 19:1021:1About Mekhilta DeRabbi Yishmael Shemot⁵¹and RashiShemot 19:11About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, the story of the covenant and ceremony described in Shemot 24:1-11 took place during the three days of preparations discussed in Shemot 19.⁵²  Despite this, the stories are distinguished because they have distinct foci; while Shemot 19 highlights the role of the nation and laymen, Shemot 24 focuses on the elders.

Bilam and Israel – See Why Was Hashem Angry at Bilam for those who suggest that the interactions between Bilam and Balak in Bemidbar 22-24 take place at the same time as the story of the Sin of Baal Peor in Bemidbar 25.  Here, too, the same time period is discussed from two vantage points, one focusing on what was occurring among Israel's enemies and the other on what was happening in the Israelite camp itself.

Yehoshua's spies – As there would not seem to be enough time for the story of the sending of Yehoshua's spies and their escape to take place between Yehoshua 1 and 3, some have suggested that it overlaps with the events of Chapter 1.⁵³ Tanakh, though, opted for thematic order, first telling of Yehoshua's interactions with the nation and then focusing on the two spies.

The Shofetim – The book of Shofetim presents the tenures of each judge as being consecutive, yet, due to the dating given in Shofetim 11:26, there is reason to suggest that they actually overlapped⁵⁴ and that parts of the book are achronological.⁵⁵  Here, too, Tanakh prefers thematic order, opting to tell the story of each judge individually.

Shaul and David – Shemuel I 30 and 31 appear to occur at the same time. David returns to Ziklag and fights the Amalekites while Shaul and the Israelite army are being defeated by the Philistines on the Mountains of Gilboa.⁵⁶ As Tanakh cannot describe both events at once, and prefers not to interweave the various events of each story line by line, it focuses on one protagonist at a time.

Reigns of the Judean and Israelite kings – The book of Melakhim alternates between the reigns of the kings of Yehuda and Yisrael, focusing on only one kingdom at a time, even though this means that certain elements are told out of order.

Prophecies of Yirmeyahu – See Structure – Sefer Yirmeyahu for a discussion of how the prophecies of rebuke in Chapters 1-25 might be ordered based on the audience receiving the prophecies rather than when they were relayed.  Yirmeyahu focuses first on the nation as a whole, then turns to the kings, then to the false prophets and finally to the other nations.

Realms of Life

When a protagonist's interactions in two realms of his life (such as the personal / familial realm vs. the political /national realm) overlap, Tanakh will often separate the two strands of the story rather than constantly switching back and forth.

Banishment of Yishmael and covenant with Avimelekh (Bereshit 21) – R. Saadia GaonCommentary Bereshit 6:3Commentary Bereshit 11:31Commentary Bereshit 24:22Commentary Bereshit 24:29About R. Saadia Gaon, R"Y KaraBereshit 21:22About R. Yosef Kara and RashbamBereshit 21:22About R. Shemuel b. Meir imply that the story of the covenant with Avimelekh took place after Yitzchak's birth but before (or in the middle of) the story of Yishmael's banishment.⁵⁷  Tanakh might have relayed the events achronologically as it preferred to group the episodes that touch on Avraham's personal family life separately from those which relate to his interactions with outsiders.⁵⁸

Yitzchak stories (Bereshit 25-26) – Bereshit 25 tells of Yitzchak's marriage, the birth of Yaakov and Esav, and their upbringing. These events likely overlapped with those of Bereshit 26, with the first half of Bereshit 26 (the wife-sister story) occurring before the birth⁵⁹ and the second half (the covenant with Avimelekh) taking place later on.  Rather than interweaving the various elements of each story as a strict chronology would dictate, Torah separates the personal and political strands of the Yitzchak narrative.

Yosef in Egypt (Bereshit 42-47) – After narrating the story of Yosef's interactions with his brothers in Bereshit 42-46, Chapter 47 speaks of how the Egyptians themselves fared throughout the famine. If Bereshit 47:18's mention of the "שָּׁנָה הַשֵּׁנִית" refers to the second year of the famine⁶⁰ (rather than two years after the family's arrival in Egypt), then the events of the chapter overlap with those of the previous ones. Here, too Torah portrays the same time period from two perspectives, the personal and political, first focusing on Yosef and his family and then on Yosef and the Egyptians.

Search for a harpist (Shemuel I 16-17) – See Chronology of Shemuel I 16 – 17 for an approach which suggests that the search for a musician to calm Shaul when overtaken by the "evil spirit" described in Shemuel I 16 took place in the middle of the war with the Philistines described in Chapter 17.⁶¹  Tanakh, though, tells of each event alone, with Chapter 16 focusing on events relating to the personal life of Shaul, and Chapter 17 focusing on those that relate to Shaul in the national realm.

David's sin and the war with Ammon (Shemuel II 11-12) – The story of David's sin with Batsheva and its aftermath spans Shemuel II 11-12 and takes place over at least two years.  The events likely overlapped with the end of the war against Ammon described in 12:26-31, yet the two episodes are told as independent stories with Tanakh focusing on the personal and national spheres separately.

Shelomo's internal enemies – Melakhim I 2 describes how Shelomo took care of his internal enemies: Yoav, Shimi and Evyatar. Though it is likely that some of these stories overlapped with events that took place later,⁶² they are grouped together in one unit as they all relate to the same aspect of Shelomo's reign, the securing of his throne.  Sefer Melakhim preferred to separate its discussion of events related to Shelomo's kingdom's security from those which relate to Shelomo's administration.⁶³

Chizkiyahu's illness – Seder Olam Rabbah23About Seder Olam Rabbah asserts that Chizkiyahu's sickness in Melakhim II 20 overlapped with Sancheriv's attack described in Melakhim 19-20. [They suggest that the incident took place three days before Sancheriv's defeat.]⁶⁴  If so, it is likely that the story is told achronologically to separate the events relating to Chizkiyahu the person from those relating to Chizkiyahu the king.

Individual vs. Universal

When an incident has both a universal and individual aspect to it, Tanakh will focus on one at a time.

Two stories of Creation – The achronology found in the two accounts of Creation can be explained by positing that Tanakh is telling the same event from two perspectives, starting with the universal and then narrowing in to focus on the creation of Adam. For further discussion, see Two Accounts of Creation.

Literary Genre

Torah often separates material of different genres. Thus, even if a unit of laws was relayed over a period of time and other events occurred simultaneously, Torah might group the legal and narrative material separately. Similarly, when a book contains both prophecies and history, each might be grouped alone even if this creates achronology.

Yitro's arrival (Shemot 18) – RashbamShemot 18:13About R. Shemuel b. Meir posits that all of Chapter 18 (Yitro's arrival, advice and its implementation) occurred after receiving the Decalogue but before the construction of the Tabernacle.⁶⁵  It is placed earlier in order not to break up the continuity of the legal sections of Shemot 20-24 with an unrelated narrative.  See Chronology – Shemot 18 for more.

Request for an intermediary at Revelation (Shemot 20:14-17) – R. Yehoshua in Shir HaShirim Rabbah1:2:2About Shir HaShirim Rabbah suggests that Shemot 20:14-16, which describes the people's request that Moshe act as an intermediary rather than Hashem speaking to them directly, actually happened in the midst of Hashem's relaying of the Decalogue (after the second commandment) and not afterward where it is written.  ChizkuniShemot 20:14About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach explains that it is recorded out of order so as not to interrupt the Decalogue, thereby allowing the commandments to appear in one continuous list.  For further discussion and the implications of this reading, see The Decalogue: Direct From Hashem or Via Moshe.

"הַחֹדֶשׁ הַזֶּה לָכֶם" (Shemot 12:1-3) – ChizkuniShemot 12:1About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach claims that the command of "הַחֹדֶשׁ הַזֶּה לָכֶם" in Shemot 12 was given before the warning about the Plague of Firstborns in Shemot 11,⁶⁶ but was recorded only afterwards since Torah wanted to group the narrative of the plagues together and the laws relating to the month of Nissan together.

Sefer Yirmeyahu – Some of the explicit achronology of Sefer Yirmeyahu might be explained if one posits that the book groups prophetic and history/narrative separately, first recording a series of prophecies and then returning to discuss relevant historical narrative.   See Structure – Sefer Yirmeyahu for elaboration.

Speech vs. Action

When an action occurs in the middle of a conversation, or an extended conversation occurs in the midst of a list of several actions, Tanakh might distinguish between the two.

Giving of jewelry (Bereshit 24:22-25) – RashbamBereshit 24:22About R. Shemuel b. Meir suggests that in reality the giving of the jewelry to Rivka took place in the middle of the servant's conversation with her (after asking her who she was but before she invited him to stay). The narrator, however, places it beforehand so as not to interrupt the conversation. For elaboration and how this understanding of the verse relates to the disagreement regarding what qualities the servant was looking for when searching for Yitzchak's wife, see A Wife for Yitzchak.

Entry into Rachel's tent (Bereshit 31:33-35) – Though the opening of Bereshit 31:33 implies that Lavan went straight from Leah's tent into that of the maidservants, several commentators⁶⁷ claim that really he went from Leah's tent into Rachel's tent and only then into the tent of Bilhah and Zilpah.⁶⁸  However, due to the lengthy exchange between Lavan and Rachel, Tanakh preferred not to interrupt the initial list and left the description of the interaction for the end.

Non-overlapping Stories

Even when two stories do not overlap in time, Tanakh might prefer thematic unity over a strict chronological recounting. This might be motivated by a desire to group together texts which share similar themes, laws which are relevant to the same time period, or content written by the same author.

Thematically similar units

At times, closely related events might be grouped together, even if this creates achronology.⁶⁹

Masa U'Merivah (Shemot 17) – R"Y Bekhor ShorBemidbar 20:8About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor uniquely suggests that the story of Masa U'Merivah in Shemot 17 is identical to the story of Mei Merivah in Bemidbar 20.  Even though it is elaborated upon in its chronological place when discussing the events of the fortieth year, it is mentioned earlier in Shemot as well since the Torah wanted to group the various examples of miraculous sustenance in the Wilderness together.

Covenant of the Pieces (Bereshit 15:7-20) – Seder Olam Rabbah1About Seder Olam Rabbah, RashiBereshit 15:13Vayikra 8:2Bemidbar 7:1Bemidbar 9:1Bemidbar 20:1Yehoshua 8:30Shofetim 11:26Shofetim 17:1Yeshayahu 1:1About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, and RashbamReconstructed Bereshit 15:7About R. Shemuel b. Meir all assume that the Covenant of Pieces occurred when Avraham was 70, before the events of Bereshit 12.⁷⁰  Rashbam suggests that the story is written out of order in order to juxtapose the promise of land with the promise of progeny mentioned in the first part of Chapter 15. As the two promises are integrally related (as evidenced by Hashem's words at the end of the chapter, "בַּיּוֹם הַהוּא כָּרַת י״י אֶת אַבְרָם בְּרִית לֵאמֹר לְזַרְעֲךָ נָתַתִּי אֶת הָאָרֶץ הַזֹּאת"), they are placed one after the another. See Bereshit 15 – One Prophecy or Two.

Blessings and curses (Vayikra 26) – Ibn Ezra maintains that the blessings and curses of Vayikra 26 were originally part of the covenant of Shemot 24 and relayed then.⁷¹  He suggests that they were, nonetheless, written only at the end of Sefer Vayikra so as to group together "תנאי הארץ", the various warnings and conditions for living in the Land of Israel.⁷² [The blessings/curses, thus, also serve as a natural segue into Sefer Bemidbar which opens with the intended entry into the Land.] See Blessings and Curses – Over Which Commandments for more.⁷³

Rebellion of Korach (Bemidbar 16) – According to Ibn EzraBemidbar 16:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra,⁷⁴ Korach's rebellion is not found in its chronological place and actually occurred earlier, soon after the Levites were chosen to replace the firstborns in the aftermath of the Sin of the Golden Calf.⁷⁵ If so, it is possible that it is placed later in Sefer Bemidbar in order to group it with the other rebellions of the book.⁷⁶ For elaboration and a discussion of how various understanding's of the rebel's grievances affect commentators' dating of the chapter, see Korach's Rebellion.

David's offensive wars (Shemuel II 8) – Shemuel II 8 lists David's various wars against external enemies.  It is likely that not all the battles were consecutive and that some might have occurred at other points in David's reign. For example, the battle against Aram Tzova described in Shemuel II 8:3-5 might be identical to that mentioned in Shemuel II 10:6-19. Tanakh nonetheless groups all the wars together for thematic unity.

Yeshayahu' initiation (Yeshayahu 6) – According to several commentators,⁷⁷ Yeshayahu 6 constitutes Yeshayahu's initiation into prophecy,⁷⁸ and as such, it should have opened the book. It is possible that here, too, thematic order takes precedence over chronological order.⁷⁹ Chapters 1-5 describe the nation's sins, while Chapter 6 through 12 focus on their punishment. Even though Chapter 6 might have been relayed first, it is grouped with the other prophecies of punishment.⁸⁰ See Yeshayahu's Mission in Chapter 6 for further discussion.

"לדורות" / "לשעה"

Tanakh might group laws which are relevant only for a specific time period (לשעה) separately from those which are relevant for all future generations (לדורות).

The laws of Vayikra 6-7 – According to R. D"Z Hoffmann, the laws of sacrifices in Vayikra 6-7 were given together with those of Shemot 29, before the erection of the Tabernacle,⁸¹ and not together with the laws of Parashat Vayikra which were commanded in the Ohel Moed. They are nonetheless placed in Sefer Vayikra because all the laws of the Parashot of Tzav and Vayikra share a a common denominator; they are relevant for all future generations, while those of Shemot were pertinent only for the generation of the Wilderness.⁸²  For further discussion, see Relationship Between Vayikra 1-5 and 6-7.

Two Authors

If a book has multiple authors, each author's material might be grouped separately even if this means that some content is relayed achronologically.

David and Golyat (Shemuel I 16-17) – R. Shemuel b. Chofni GaonBereshit 48:8About R. Shemuel b. Chofni Gaon suggests that the story of David and Golyat might have preceded the story of Shaul's search for a musician.⁸³ R"M Leibtag⁸⁴ explains that the achronology might result from the fact that Sefer Shemuel was written by multiple authors⁸⁵ whose works were then combined. He suggests that since Shemuel was Shaul's prophet, he wrote Chapters 1-16, which concern the two of them, whereas Gad, David's prophet, wrote the units relating to David, beginning with his rise to power in Chapter 17.  This, though, resulted in small sections of overlapping, slightly inconsistent, and achronological content.⁸⁶  For a full discussion, see Chronology of Shemuel I 16 – 17.

Simultaneous Actions

When a unit contains but one element, the entire unit might not just overlap with but actually occur totally simultaneously with another event.  In such cases, Tanakh does not have a choice but to tell one event before the other, even though this does not represent the reality.

Giving of jewelry (Bereshit 24:22-25) – ShadalBereshit 24:22About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto⁸⁷ suggests that the servant gave the jewelry to Rivka as he asked her about her lineage. Tanakh states one action before the other only since it cannot relay both facts at once.

Moshe and Zipporah (Shemot 4:20-26) – According to R. Saadia, Shemot 4:20 serves as a dual introduction to the following verses, telling the reader where each of Zipporah and Moshe were headed: Moshe put Zipporah and family on the donkey to head back to Midyan, while he then, alone, returned to Egypt. The text then continues as a split screen, first recounting the prophecy received by Moshe as he embarked on his mission (verses 21-23), and then relating the simultaneous incident which occurred to Zipporah at the lodge (verses 24-26). See Mystery at the Malon for elaboration and how this reading affects one's understanding of the story.

Speech of Michah and his mother (Shofetim 17:2-4) – R"M Sabato⁸⁸ suggests that the awkward syntax of the verses might be partially explained if one posits that Michah and his mother were speaking at the same time.  He suggests that the words "וְעַתָּה אֲשִׁיבֶנּוּ לָךְ" in verse 3 are really the words of Michah (and belong in the middle of verse 2), but are placed later at the end of his mother's speech to show that these words overlapped with hers. ⁸⁹

Homiletical Juxtaposition

Achronology might stem from a desire to relay a message through the juxtaposition of two stories which otherwise would not follow one another. The message might be a lesson in proper behavior, a showcasing of Hashem's attributes, or a means of highlighting (or hiding) a character's strengths or faults.

Proper Behavior

Two nonconsecutive stories might be juxtaposed to teach a lesson in proper behavior.

"וַי״י פָּקַד אֶת שָׂרָה" (Bereshit 21:1) – Rashi Bereshit 21:1Yehoshua 8:30Shofetim 11:26Shofetim 17:1Yeshayahu 1:1About R. Shelomo Yitzchakisuggests that Sarah's conception is mentioned only after the story of Avimelekh, despite it having occurred beforehand,⁹⁰ to teach that if one prays for his neighbor when he himself is similarly in need, he will be answered first.

Parashat Mishpatim – About R. Shelomo Yitzchakihe NetzivShemot 21:1About R. Naftali Tzvi Yehuda Berlin suggests that Parashat Mishpatim was actually relayed before the Decalogue, but it comes right after the announcement "אָבוֹא אֵלֶיךָ וּבֵרַכְתִּיךָ" (Shemot 20:20) to teach that all who abide by the judicial system (המשפטים) similarly bring blessing to the world. Mekhilta DeRabbi Yishmael Shemot21:1About Mekhilta DeRabbi Yishmael Shemot instead suggests that the unit is juxtaposed with the command to build the altar to teach that one should set up a Sanhedrin (court of law) in the Mikdash.

Hashem's Attributes

Achronology might serve to link stories so as to highlight Hashem's ways and attributes.

Commands regarding the Tabernacle – Sifre Devarim1About Sifre Devarim, TanchumaTerumah 8About the Tanchuma, and RashiShemot 31:18About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki claim that the directive to build the Mishkan does not appear in its chronological place as it was first given in the wake of (and as a result of) the Sin of the Golden Calf.⁹¹  R. Bachya suggests that it appears beforehand to teach an important lesson about Hashem's attributes, that He provides a cure even before an illness arises (מקדים תרופה למכה).⁹²  See Purpose of the Mishkan for more.

David's offensive wars – The commentary attributed to R"Y Kara Shemuel II 8:1About Attributed to R. Yosef Karaimplies that not all of David's wars listed in Shemuel II 8 occurred where written.⁹³ However, they are placed after Chapter 7 in which Hashem promised David, "וַהֲנִיחֹתִי לְךָ מִכׇּל אֹיְבֶיךָ" to highlight how Hashem keeps His promises, as evidenced by the fact that David was indeed able to vanquish his enemies.

Character

Juxtaposing stories that otherwise would not follow one another can help a reader compare and contrast different figures, often highlighting their merits or faults.

Yehuda and Tamar (Bereshit 38) – Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 38:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra and RalbagBereshit Beur HaParashah 38:1About R. Levi b. Gershom suggest that the Yehuda story is placed in the middle of the Yosef story, even though parts of it preceded it,⁹⁴ because Tanakh wanted to contrast how the two brothers reacted to sexual advances.  While Yosef passed the test, Yehuda did not.

Yitro's arrival (Shemot 18) – Ibn EzraShemot First Commentary 18:1Shemot Second Commentary 18:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra suggests that though the story of Yitro's arrival and advice described in Shemot 18 first occurred in the second year after the construction of the Tabernacle,⁹⁵ it is purposefully juxtaposed to the story of Amalek's attack to highlight the contrast between Yitro and Amalek. Yitro's goodness is all the more appreciated when seen on the backdrop of the evil Amalek.  See Chronology – Shemot 18 and Yitro & Amalek for further discussion.

Laws of the Red Heifer (Bemidbar 19) – R. Ami in Bavli Moed KatanMoed Katan 28aAbout the Bavli asserts that the laws of the red heifer first appear in Bemidbar 19, rather than before the purification of the Levites in Bemidbar 8, so as to juxtapose the laws with Miriam's death (recounted in Bemibdar 20). This teaches that just as the red heifer atones for one's sins, so does the death of the righteous.

Defense of Avot

Achronology might be a means of obscuring a fault or sin of the Avot or nation.

"וַיָּמׇת תֶּרַח בְּחָרָן" (Bereshit 11:32) – Bereshit Rabbah39:7About Bereshit Rabbah suggests that Terach's death is mentioned before Avraham leaves Charan, despite it occurring only afterwards, to obfuscate the fact that Avraham's departure meant that he could no longer properly honor and care for his father.

Pesach in Bemidbar 9 – Bemidbar 9 recounts the first Pesach in the Wilderness( which took place in the first month) before the events mentioned in Bemidbar 1 (which take place in the second month).  RashiBemidbar 9:1About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki explains the displacement, noting that Hashem did not want to open the book with the a description of the Pesach since this would cast Israel in a negative light.  Since this was the only Pesach observed by the nation throughout the forty years, its mention is disparaging.⁹⁶ See Chronology of Bemidbar 1 – 10 for elaboration.

¹ See also Bereshit Rabbah22:2About Bereshit Rabbah and RashiBereshit 4:1Yeshayahu 1:1About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki.

² The past perfect form, "וְהָאָדָם יָדַע" might be an indicator of achronology.  It is not clear, though, if this grammatical form alone is motivating the suggestion of achronology.  It is possible that there are polemical motivations as well.  As Christians suggest that the sin in the Garden of Eden is what led to sexual desire, these sources might want to stress that such desire existed even beforehand.

³ They suggest that he emigrated immediately, remained in Charan for five years, and then completed the final leg of the journey to Canaan at 75.

⁴ The fixing of Avraham's departure from Ur Kasdim specifically at age 70 is motivated by a desire to solve the discrepancy between the accounts of the length of the Egyptian Exile in Bereshit 15:13 (400 years) and Shemot 12:40-41 (430 years). These sources maintain that the 430 year period is dated from Avraham's personal exile, while the 400 years is dated from the birth of Yitzchak. If so, Avraham must have been 70 when he left Ur. For elaboration, see Duration of the Egyptian Exile.

⁵ One could have alternatively suggested that the achronology stems from a desire to place all the events relating to Terach together, and all those relating to Avraham together. [See R. Saadia.]

⁶ See, for example, RashiBereshit 21:1Shemot 31:18Bemidbar 9:1Yehoshua 8:30Yeshayahu 1:1About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, R. Avraham SabaTzeror HaMor Bereshit 21:1About R. Avraham Saba (Tzeror HaMor), and MalbimBereshit 21:1About R. Meir Leibush Weiser. They note that this is hinted to in the text's employing the past perfect form "וַה' פָּקַד אֶת שָׂרָה" rather than the form "ויפקוד ה'".  [None of these commentators, however, offer a literary explanation for the achronology like that suggested here.]

⁷ These sources suggest that Sarah had conceived enough before the incident with Avimelekh that, when Yitzchak was born, no one could mistake Avimelekh for the father.

⁸ Since Shemot 2 speaks only about the attempt to hide Moshe, it seems likely that Aharon and Miriam were born before the decree.

⁹ See also RalbagShemot Beur HaMilot 11:1About R. Levi b. Gershom and Or HaCHayyimShemot 11:1About R. Chayyim b. Atar.

¹⁰ According to him, the verse should be read as if written, "And Hashem had said".  See RalbagShemot Beur HaMilot 11:1About R. Levi b. Gershom who explains the motivation for positing achronology here; if the verse occurred where written this would mean that Moshe received prophecy while standing before and conversing with Paroh in his (idolatry-filled) palace.

¹¹ In this case the achronology is explicit in the text.  Bemidbar 1 opens in the second month, while Bemidbar 9 speaks of the Pesach in the first month and only afterwards returns to speak of Pesach Sheni in the second month.

¹² He assumes that this writing was a lengthy process and might have taken time to finish.

¹³ R. Hoffmann might be motivated to suggest this slight achronology because the directive in Devarim 27 mandates that the stones be set up on the day that the nation crosses the Jordan ( "בַּיּוֹם אֲשֶׁר תַּעַבְרוּ אֶת הַיַּרְדֵּן") and Yehoshua 8:32 states that Yehoshua did as commanded.  R. Hoffmann, thus, suggests that the initial preparation of the stones (the plastering and writing) did indeed begin on the day of the crossing.

¹⁴ In contrast to most of the other examples brought, in this case the displaced event has already been explicitly mentioned earlier in the text and is repeated here (rather than first being mentioned here).  As such, one might think of this as a "flashback".

¹⁵ The past perfect form, " וַיָּמׇת שְׁמוּאֵל" might hint to the reader that the event occurred previously.

¹⁶ For examples, see the mention of the death of Noach in Bereshit 9:29, Terach in Bereshit 11:31-32, Avraham in Bereshit 25:8, and Yitzchak in Bereshit 35:29.

¹⁷ Using the genealogy lists and birth / death notices to calculate the ages of various characters, it becomes apparent that Noach lived for 52 years after Avraham's birth, Terach first died 60 years after the command of "לך-לך", Avraham died when Yaakov and Esav were fifteen, and Yitzchak died twelve years after the sale of Yosef. Yet, all of the deaths are recorded before these points.

¹⁸ See R. Saadia GaonCommentary Bereshit 11:31About R. Saadia Gaon, Ibn EzraBereshit Second Commentary 9:29Bereshit Additional Commentary 11:32About R. Avraham ibn Ezra and RambanBereshit 11:32About R. Moshe b. Nachman who all note this.

¹⁹ The verse's statement, "וַיַּנִּיחֵהוּ אַהֲרֹן לִפְנֵי הָעֵדֻת לְמִשְׁמָרֶת" suggests that Aharon placed the manna near the Ark (the "testimony"), an act which could have only occurred in the second year, after the Ark was built.

²⁰ See Ibn Ezra Shemot Second Commentary 12:50About R. Avraham ibn Ezraand RambanBemidbar 21:1About R. Moshe b. Nachman who both point to this as the classic example and prototype of the many cases in Torah where the text appends information which happened only significantly later so as to complete a story.

²¹ He is motivated by the fact that it is only in the fortieth year that it was known that Yehoshua alone was to head the Conquest and only by then was the "book," the Sefer Torah, extant. Cf. RashiShemot 17:14Shemot 31:18Vayikra 8:2Bemidbar 7:1Bemidbar 9:1Yehoshua 8:30Shofetim 11:26Shofetim 17:1Yeshayahu 1:1About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki who disagrees and maintains chronological order, asserting that already here, Hashem hinted to Moshe that he was not to enter the land and that Yehoshua was to lead after his death.  Alternatively, one might suggest that Yehoshua is mentioned due to the role he played in the present battle, and not because of his future position of leadership.

²² This is one of two possible reading of the story raised by Shadal.

²³ Shadal identifies "חֹבָב בֶּן רְעוּאֵל הַמִּדְיָנִי חֹתֵן מֹשֶׁה" mentioned in Bemidbar 10 with Yitro (see Yitro – Names), and assumes that his departure there is what is mentioned briefly at the end of Shemot 18. [In Shemot the text quickly mentions the fact to close the story, but leaves the details for Bemidbar when the departure actually took place.]

²⁴ See also R"M Speigelman's article, "פרשת ויקהל (שקלים) - המשכן לאחר חטא העגל".

²⁵ This position views the Incense Altar as playing an important role in atonement, and suggests that it was first commanded only when Yom HaKippurim was instituted, in the aftermath of the sin.

²⁶ However, to highlight that the Incense Altar was not part of the original command, the directive appears after the unit's concluding verses.

²⁷ See Sifre Bemidbar7About Sifre Bemidbar and RashiVayikra 8:2Bemidbar 7:1Yehoshua 8:30Shofetim 11:26Shofetim 17:1Yeshayahu 1:1About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and RambanVayikra 8:2About R. Moshe b. Nachman in its wake.  This suggestion is partially motivated by the desire not to have the Days of Consecration overlap with the Dedication of the Altar which, according to a simple reading of Bemidbar 7:1 (וַיְהִי בְּיוֹם כַּלּוֹת מֹשֶׁה לְהָקִים אֶת הַמִּשְׁכָּן) began on the first of Nisan.

²⁸ One could have alternatively formulated that it is the chapters in Sefer Vayikra which are out of place and need explaining.

²⁹ As both verses speak of conquering the Canaanites and calling the conquered place "חרמה" it seems that they are speaking of the same event.

³⁰ This example is exceptional in this category in that it refers to an event which occurred earlier that is only mentioned later to complete the unit (איחור להשלים את הענין) rather than the opposite.

³¹ Shadal suggests that the words "וַיִּירְשׁוּ אֶת אַרְצוֹ" in Bemidbar 21:1 include these conquests.

³² Cf. AbarbanelBemidbar 32About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel who brings a similar opinion that Yosef had bought these lands in the time of the famine. A possible motivation of R. Saadia's student is the fact that the verses mention Machir, Yair, and Novach, the sons and grandsons of Menashe. These figures should no longer be alive if the conquests took place in the fortieth year.

³³ The words "וַיָּבֹא אֶל הָאִישׁ" are basically equivalent to "וַיָּרׇץ לָבָן אֶל הָאִישׁ" in the first verse.

³⁴ See also R"Y Bekhor ShorBereshit 28:10About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor and RadakBereshit 28:10About R. David Kimchi who explain similarly but without the formulation of a "כלל ופרט".

³⁵ Cf. Bavli Sanhedrin 95b which chooses not to read these words as a heading and instead suggest that Yaakov had indeed gone all the way to Charan and then returned to pray at Beit El.

³⁶ According to Rashbam, Michah's mother first told him that she had dedicated the moneys to making an idol and only afterwards did he return them.  Cf. RadakShofetim 17:3About R. David Kimchi and RalbagShofetim 17:3About R. Levi b. Gershom, in contrast, who understand that Michah returned the monies twice.  First he gave them to his mother who then returned them to him to make an idol, but since he did not want to be bothered to deal with the sculptor, he gave them back to his mother so she could take care of the matter.

³⁷ See also Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 30:21Shemot Second Commentary 11:9Shemot First Commentary 17:14Bemidbar 21:1Devarim 31:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra and R"Y Bekhor ShorShemot 11:9About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor.

³⁸ After all, the nation was granted permission to leave after the plague.

³⁹ This reordering is motivated by rationalist concerns over the age of Avraham when siring children. Since Avraham's siring of Yitzchak was already considered surprising, the fact that he could bear six more children 40 years later seems equally unnatural, leading to the suggestion that these children must have been born earlier.

⁴⁰ Alternatively, one may view them as prologues to the stories of Yitzchak and Yaakov's descendants.  Before moving to speak at length about the chosen line, the main focus of the text, the Torah quickly reviews what happened to the rejected line.

⁴¹ There are also descendants (such as the kings which emerged from Esav) mentioned that were only born much later.  These are included to complete the list.

⁴² His suggestion is based on logical conjecture; if the Levites underwent a process of purification, it would make sense that the laws of purification from the dead would have been taught beforehand.

⁴³ It is not clear, though, what in the text is troubling him that leads him to say this.

⁴⁴ See Seder Olam Rabbah12About Seder Olam Rabbah, RashiShofetim 17:1Yeshayahu 1:1About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, and RalbagShofetim 17:1About R. Levi b. Gershom.

⁴⁵ This, in part, is motivated by the fact that Pinechas, the grandson of Aharon, appears in the story of the Concubine of Givah.  If the story is told in its chronological place, this would make him hundreds of years old! Rashi adds that regarding the idol of Michah the verse states that it was "In Shiloh all the days" suggesting that it existed from the very beginning of the Shiloh period.

⁴⁶ The song is said to have been composed as praise for David's salvation from Shaul (suggesting that it was composed either during Shaul's lifetme or soon after his death) and the warrior list includes people who are no longer alive at the end of the book.

⁴⁷ The simplest reading of the text seems to be that Yaakov married Leah after completing his first seven years of labor for Lavan and that Yosef, his twelfth child, was born at the end of his second seven year stint.  This leaves just 6 years for the births.

⁴⁸ Lekach TovBereshit 29:32About R. Toviah b. Eliezer suggests that Bilhah and Zilpah's pregnancies overlapped with those of Leah, while Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 30:23About R. Avraham ibn Ezra and SefornoBereshit 30:8About R. Ovadyah Seforno suggest that it was Bilhah's and Zilpah's pregnancies which overlapped. Ibn Ezra also raises the possibilities that Zevulun and Dinah were twins.

⁴⁹ Bereshit 46:12 shares that at the time of the descent to Egypt, Peretz (Tamar and Yehuda's son) has already sired two children. As Yehuda had relations with Tamar only after his own sons were of marriageable age, if Yehuda's marriage to Bat-Shua first took place after the sale of Yosef, this would leave only 22 years for Yehuda to produce three generations worth of progeny - his own sons, Tamar's children, and Peretz's sons!  This leads Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 38:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra, RalbagBereshit Beur HaParashah 38:1About R. Levi b. Gershom and ShadalBereshit 38:1About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto  to claim that at least the beginning of Chapter 38 took place before the sale.
On the other end, as the rest of the Yehuda story stretches over many years, telling of the growth of his children and their own marriages, it is likely that some of these events took place after Yosef was already taken to Egypt.

⁵⁰ This, however, does not explain why Torah did not place the Yehuda story before the sale, which would have allowed all the Yosef stories to run consecutively.  It is possible that the placement in the middle serves to clue the reader in to the fact that the stories overlap.

⁵¹ It is not clear what R. Yose B. Rabbi Yehuda there maintains.  He writes, "בּוֹ בַיּוֹם נֶעֱשׂוּ כָּל הַמַּעֲשִׂים" which could either mean that he thinks the ceremony of Shemot 24 took place on the morning of revelation, before Shemot 20 (in which case, he, too, agrees that the chapters are achronological), or that is occurred only in the afternoon, after the Decalogue was received (in which case the chapters are chronological).

⁵² See also Lekach TovShemot 24:1About R. Toviah b. Eliezer and R"Y Bekhor ShorShemot 24:1Shemot 24:12About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor.  These sources are likely motivated by the many parallels between the chapters, most notably the nation's announcement, "כֹּל אֲשֶׁר דִּבֶּר ה' נַעֲשֶׂה". The opening past perfect formulation, "וְאֶל מֹשֶׁה אָמַר", and lack of named speaker might further indicate achronology.  Cf. NetzivShemot 24:1Bemidbar 19:1About R. Naftali Tzvi Yehuda Berlin who suggests that all of Parashat Mishpatim, as well, was said before the Decalogue.

⁵³ The spies were perhaps sent after Hashem encouraged Yehoshua in the first part of the chapter, but before Yehoshua spoke to the officers and the 2 1/2 tribes at the end of the chapter. The spies' escape and stay in the mountains likely overlapped with these conversations and the days in which the people prepared to cross the Jordan.

⁵⁴ In Shofetim 11:26, Yiftach asserts that 300 years passed from the conquest of the lands of Sichon until his own time period. However, if one calculates all the years of oppression and quiet in Sefer Shofetim plus the years of the Conquest and division of the land, one reaches more than the 300 years allotted. [There were 8 years of oppression by Kushan and 40 years of quiet under Otniel, 18 years of servitude to Eglon and 80 of quiet under Ehud, 20 years of oppession by Canaan and 40 years under Devorah, 7 years of trouble by Midyan and 40 of quiet under Gidon, 3 years in which Avimelekh reigned, 23 years of Tola, 22 years of Yair and 18 years of oppression by Ammon before Yiftach. This alone amounts to 321 years and does not include the years of the Conquest and Inheritance.]

⁵⁵ See Prof. Elitzur's comments to Shofetim 11:26 in Da'at MIkra, Sefer Shofetim (Jerusalem, 1976): 127. Cf. Seder Olam Rabbah12About Seder Olam Rabbah and RashiShofetim 11:26About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, though, who maintain that the judges were in fact consecutive, and that some of the years of oppression overlapped with the years that the judges were said to rule, allowing for a shorter time period. This is difficult, though, because the text employs the language of "and there was quiet for "x" amount of years". Quiet implies that the nation was not oppressed at the time.

⁵⁶ The chapters allude to the fact that chronologically Chapter 31 directly follows Chapter 29, by opening Chapter 31 with a resumptive repetition, " וּפְלִשְׁתִּים נִלְחָמִים בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל", letting the reader know that the story is resuming from where it left off earlier. As Rashi says, "כאדם האומר נחזור לענין ראשון".

⁵⁷ The opening words of the unit, "וַיְהִי בָּעֵת הַהִוא", imply that the story does not follow what took place beforehand but overlaps with it.

⁵⁸ In this case, the tight connection between the stories of the birth and expulsion would further motivate grouping them together.

⁵⁹ Otherwise it is very difficult to understand how Avimelekh did not know of Rivka and Yitzchak's marital status.

⁶⁰ See Rashi, Ma'asei Hashem and Netziv.

⁶¹ According to this theory, the "רוּחַ רָעָה" that plagued Shaul wasn't a purely supernatural phenomenon, but rather a natural reaction to stress. As Golyat continuously threatened the nation, Shaul's anxiety grew, leading to the search for a musician. This theory solves a number of difficulties in the text such as how Shaul has no idea who David was in Shemuel I 17:55-58.  According to this reading, Shaul first met David when he volunteered to fight Golyat, so there is no expectation that Shaul should have already known him.

⁶² The story of Shimi, for instance, takes place over more than three years, and likely overlapped with Shelomo's setting up of his administration described in Chapters 4-5.

⁶³ One might alternatively suggest that really all the events in the chapter are chronological with the exception of the few verses which speak of Shimi's offense and punishment.  If so, this is not a case of parallel overlapping units but rather an epiolgue which comes to complete the story.

⁶⁴ This achronology is suggested by the storyline.  During Chizkiyahu's illness, Yeshayahu promises the king salvation from Assyria, implying that they had not yet been saved.  Yet this salvation is described in the previous chpater. The opening words of the story, "בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם חָלָה חִזְקִיָּהוּ" might further hint that the event described overlapped with the preceding story.
Yeshayahu's second promise to the king, that Chizkiyahu's life will be prolonged by 15 years, might set the story even earlier. As Chizkiyahu reigned for 29 years, this promise would suggest that Chizkiyahu's illness occurred in the 14th year of his reign, right when Sancheriv attacked (See Melakhim II 18:13).  See Sancheriv's Campaign and Assyrian Sources for more about this latter possibility.

⁶⁵ He is motivated, in part, by the fact that Shemot 19 speaks of the initial arrival of the nation a Mount Sinai, while Shemot 18 presents the nation as already camped there.

⁶⁶ He assumes that the warning was given soon before the plague was to arrive (as Moshe says, "כַּחֲצֹת הַלַּיְלָה אֲנִי יוֹצֵא בְּתוֹךְ מִצְרָיִם"), while Chapter 12 had to be given by the beginning of the month.

⁶⁷ See RashbamBereshit 31:33About R. Shemuel b. Meir, R"Y Bekhor ShorBereshit 31:33About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor, RadakBereshit 31:33About R. David Kimchi and RambanBereshit 31:33About R. Moshe b. Nachman.

⁶⁸ This is alluded to in the verse when it states, "וַיֵּצֵא מֵאֹהֶל לֵאָה וַיָּבֹא בְּאֹהֶל רָחֵל". Cf. Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 31:33About R. Avraham ibn Ezra's first explanation who instead claims that Lavan went into Leah's tent twice.

⁶⁹ This is especially true when the events are presented as a list.

⁷⁰ Bereshit 12 presents Avraham as being 75. The motivation for this dating is the discrepancy between the accounts of the length of the Egyptian exile in Bereshit 15:13 (400 years) and Shemot 12:40-41 (430 years). This position maintains that the 400 years started from the birth of Yitzchak, while the 430 count began thirty years earlier, at the Covenant of the Pieces. Since Avraham was 100 when Yitzchak was born, the Covenant must have occurred when he was 70.

⁷¹ Alongside the Revelation at Sinai, Hashem made a covenant with blessings and curses on all the laws that were commanded until that point.

⁷² Vayikra 26 sets expulsion as the punishment for transgressing the laws of Shemittah, while earlier chapters warned that those who violate sexual prohibition will be similarly "spewed forth" from the land.  [However, the fact that many other laws are sandwiched between those of sexual prohibitions and Shemittah, none of  which are explicitly punished by exile, significantly weakens Ibn Ezra's argument.]

⁷³ See the opinion of Rashbam there who also maintains that the blessings and curses are not recorded in their chronological place, but does not explain why.

⁷⁴ This, at least, is how he is understood by Ramban.

⁷⁵ This chronology is motivated by an understanding that the rebellion was mainly a reaction to this switch.  It led to much resentment, especially on the part of the firstborns, and as such< Ibn Ezra claims, the firstborns made up the bulk of the rebels.  See Korach's Rebellion for more.

⁷⁶ The new placement also enures that it does not disrupt the cultic discussions in the earlier chapters.

⁷⁷ See Mekhilta DeRabbi Yishmael Shemot, RashiYeshayahu 1:1About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, Ibn Ezra, Rid, and Shadal.

⁷⁸ They point to the fact that Hashem ajks, "אֶת מִי אֶשְׁלַח... וָאֹמַר הִנְנִי שְׁלָחֵנִי".

⁷⁹ Shadal alternatively explains that though Chapter 6 was the first prophecy that Yeshayahu received, it was only relayed later.  According to him, then, the book is not really achronological.

⁸⁰ A second factor motivating the book's ordering might have been its future audience. When speaking to his contemporaries, Yeshayahu could open with a prophecy of doom since they were well aware of their misdeeds. Yet, when ordering his prophecies for future generations, it made sense for the prophet to begin with the nation's sins, giving the reader background to understand why the decree of destruction was deserved.

⁸¹ He deduces this from the summary of the unit which declares, "זֹאת הַתּוֹרָה לָעֹלָה לַמִּנְחָה וְלַחַטָּאת וְלָאָשָׁם וְלַמִּלּוּאִים וּלְזֶבַח הַשְּׁלָמִים. אֲשֶׁר צִוָּה י״י אֶת מֹשֶׁה בְּהַר סִינָי".  The verse suggests that the laws were commanded at Mount Sinai rather than in the Ohel Moed, implying that they were given before the construction of the Tabernacle.

⁸² The laws of Shemot 29 deal exclusively with what was to take place during the Days of Consecration. As such, they appear in the midst of the directive to build the Mishkan.

⁸³ See above that one of the motivations for suggesting achronology is the fact that Shaul seems to have no idea who David is in Shemuel I 17:55-58. If the events had occured in the order in which they are written, Shaul should have already known David well as he had already been appointed as a harpist and arms-bearer.

⁸⁴ See his article, "עד היכן דברי שמואל?", in Alon Shevut 122 (1988). Cf. Hoil Moshe.

⁸⁵ See Bavli Bava Batra 15a that Sefer Shemuel was written by the three prophets Shemuel, Gad and Natan.

⁸⁶ Shemuel ended his story with Shaul's losing his kingship to David, and the description of the spirit of Hashem deserting him (highlighted in the story of the search for a harpist). Gad, though, chose to begin his tale with an earlier event, David's first heroic act, the killing of Golyat. These decisions resulted in the achronology.

⁸⁷ This is one of two possibilities brought by him.

⁸⁸ See his article, "ועתה אשיבנו לך", in Alon Shevut 72.

⁸⁹ According to this reading, Michah revealed his theft to his mother saying, "הִנֵּה הַכֶּסֶף אִתִּי אֲנִי לְקַחְתִּיו". As he continued to tell her, "וְעַתָּה אֲשִׁיבֶנּוּ לָךְ", his mother cut him off, simultaneous saying "בָּרוּךְ בְּנִי לַי״י".  This suggestion, though, does still not adequately explain the doubling of the fact that the monies were returned, nor why the last few words of Michah's speech would not appear at the beginning of verse 3.

⁹⁰ See the above note that the past perfect form of "וַה' פָּקַד אֶת שָׂרָה" might be an indicator of achronology.

⁹¹ It seems that their understanding of the chronology of the events is directly related to their understanding of the role of the Tabernacle as either a means of atoning for the sin or a sign of forgiveness.

⁹² See Lekach Tov who also notes this, but suggests that Hashem actually did issue the command prior to the sin (thus providing the cure before the sickness arose).

⁹³ It is possible that they occurred at various points throughout his reign.

⁹⁴ See the discussion above.

⁹⁵ See the discussion above regarding the motivations for this achronology.

⁹⁶ Cf. SefornoBemidbar 9:1About R. Ovadyah Seforno who similarly suggests that the goal of the ordering was to cast the nation in a positive light, grouping four of the nation's meritorious actions together.