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Ibn Ezra – Intellectual Profile

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Ibn Ezra

Name	R. Avraham ben Meir Ibn Ezra ר' אברהם בן מאיר אבן עזרא, ראב"ע
Dates	1092 – 1167
Location	Andalusia / Italy / Provence / France / England
Works	Commentaries on Torah and part of Nakh, math, science, and grammar works.
Exegetical Characteristics
Influenced by	R. Saadia Gaon, R. Yonah ibn Janach, R. Yehudah Hayuj
Impacted on	Most Jewish Bible commentators. His though great impact on Chasidei Ashkenzaz

Background

Life

• Name – Avraham ben Meir ibn Ezra¹
• Dates – 1088/89-1164 or 1092-1167²
• Location –  Andalusia, Italy, France, Provence, England. Ibn Ezra's life can be divided into two main periods, until about 1140 in which he was centered in Andalusia, and from then until his death which he spent wandering through Christian lands.³ In the first period his primary literary output was in the field of poetry. His Tanakh commentaries, grammatical and other works were written in the later period.⁴ As such, it was first at about the age of fifty that Ibn Ezra began to write the scholarly works for which he is so well known.
• Education – Ibn Ezra was a polymath, engaging in many disciplines including Bible, Talmud,⁵ Midrash, grammar and philology, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, astrology,⁶ and poetry.
• Occupation – Poet,⁷ teacher,⁸ and Bible commentator
• Family – Not much is known of Ibn Ezra's family. It is possible that he sired five children,⁹ but only one is known by name,  Yitzchak, who was a poet of note.¹⁰ It is possible that he predeceased his father.¹¹ 
• Teachers – 
• Contemporaries – R. Yehuda HaLevi,¹² Rabbi Moshe ibn Ezra,¹³ Rabbi Joseph ibn Tzadik,¹⁴ Rashbam, R. Tam.¹⁵
• Students – 
• Time period – Ibn Ezra lived during the Almohad's invasion of Moslem Spain and their forced conversions of Jews to Islam on pain of death. This likely contributed to Ibn Ezra's leaving of Spain and his subsequent wanderings.¹⁶ He wrote an elegy, "אֲהָהּ יָרַד עֲלֵי סְפָרַד", lamenting the destruction of the Jewish communities in Spain in the aftermath of the invasion.¹⁷  In addition, the first (1095) and second crusades.(1150) took place during his lifetime.

Works

Ibn Ezra was a prolific writer, leaving behind many works in a variety of fields from poetry to astronomy:¹⁸

• Biblical commentaries –
• Ibn Ezra wrote a commentary on all five books of the Torah,¹⁹ Yeshayahu,²⁰ Trei Asar, Tehillim,²¹ Iyyov, the five Megillot,²² and Daniel. He is somewhat unique among commentators in having written two distinct commentaries for each of several books,²³ including Bereshit,²⁴ Shemot,²⁵ Trei Asar, Tehillim, Esther, Shir HaShirim and Daniel.²⁶  Two fragments of a third commentary to Bereshit, recorded by a patron and disciple, have also survived.²⁷
• It is likely that Ibn Ezra wrote on the other books as well, as he himself periodically refers his reader to such explanations,²⁸ but these works have not survived.²⁹  The commentaries on Mishlei and Ezra-Nechemyah attributed to him were likely authored by Moshe Kimchi.³⁰ 
• Grammar – Ibn Ezra wrote several grammatical works including: ³¹ספר מאזנים, ספר צחות³², שפת יתר,³³ שפה ברורה³⁴, and יסוד דקדוק³⁵.  He also translated several works of R. Yehuda ibn Hayyuj into Hebrew.
• Astronomy and mathematics –   Ibn Ezra wrote many astrological works including: Reshit Hokhmah,³⁶ Safer Ha-Te’ammim,³⁷ Keli Nechoshet,³⁸ Ta’ame Luhot Al-Ku’arizmi, ³⁹ Sefer Ha-Ibbur,  Response to Three Questions of Rabbi David Narboni, and Sefer Ha-Me’orot⁴⁰

• Rabbinics – No Talmudic novellae or Halakhic codes of Ibn Ezra are extant.  There is, though, one citation that might testify to his having written on the Talmud.  In his introduction to his commentary on Megillat Esther, R. Zecharyah b. Saruq writes, "ואנכי ראיתי חדושי הראב"ע מסכת קידושין והם בתכלית הדקות והאימות".
• Philosophy / Jewish thought – Ibn Ezra's philosophical views can be found scattered throughout his Torah commentaries, but he also wrote several works which heavily focused on such issues. His work, יסוד מורא וסוד התורה, discusses the rationale behind Biblical commandments.⁴¹  His ערוגת המזימה פרדס החכמה deals with the existence of God, while ספר השם, as its name suggests, discusses the names of God. 

Torah Commentary

Characteristics

• Verse by verse / Topical – Ibn Ezra's commentary is generally a local, verse by verse commentary, marked by brevity and an emphasis on grammar and linguistics. However, there are many exceptions where Ibn Ezra includes lengthy discussions of philosophical and other issues⁴² including long excurses on God's name,⁴³ the Priestly Garments, Ten Commandments,⁴⁴ Aharon's role in the Sin of the Golden Calf,⁴⁵ and Moses' request to see the face of God.⁴⁶
• Language – Ibn Ezra, somewhat unique among commentators of his era who came from Islamic lands, wrote his commentary in Hebrew rather than Arabic.⁴⁷  Ibn Ezra's language is often cryptic and obscure,⁴⁸ making it difficult to understand.⁴⁹
• Peshat and Derash – Ibn Ezra distinguishes between the authority he grants the interpretations of the Sages in legal and narrative material, finding their words binding with regards to the former but not the latter.⁵⁰ In his introduction to his second commentary, Ibn Ezra provides three criteria for determining when one may dismiss or reinterpret the simple sense of a text:⁵¹ if the explanation goes against reason, contradicts another verse, or disputes tradition.⁵²  It is these criteria which inform Ibn Ezra distinct attitude towards aggadic and halakhic Midrashim:
• Narrative material – Thus, according to Ibn Ezra, aggadic interpretations which do not accord with another verse⁵³ and those which contradict logic,⁵⁴ might be rejected.  Nonetheless, recognizing the value of "tradition," after dismissing a Midrash, Ibn Ezra will periodically add "but if it is a tradition, we will accept it".⁵⁵  Elsewhere, he might maintain that the Midrash is correct in essence, but not meant to be taken at face value.⁵⁶  There are also instances, though, where Ibn Ezra will not only reject a Midrashic interpretation but even belittle the very question it is asking, dismissing it as unnecessary.⁵⁷
• Legal material – With regards to legal material, in contrast, Ibn Ezra will  accept the opinion of the Sages, even if it appears to contradict the simple sense of the verse.  In such cases he often suggests that the verse is being used simply as an "אסמכתא", a hook to remind one of the law.⁵⁸ He often speaks of the need to rely on the Sages, noting that otherwise the law cannot be properly determined.⁵⁹ He notes, too, that if a verse can sustain two different interpretations, one of which contradicts that of the Sages,⁶⁰ it should be nullified in light of the Sages' explanation.⁶¹ 

• Grammar – Ibn Ezra's commentary is characterized by a heavy emphasis on grammar. He believed that knowledge of grammar is crucial to understanding the Biblical text, writing in the introduction to his Torah commentary: "ובעבותות הדקדוק נקשר".  See below ("methods") for discussion and examples of his grammatical insights.

• Philosophy – See Ibn Ezra's comments to Gen. 18:21 and Ps. 1:6.
• Numerology - See Ibn Ezra on Ex. 3:15.

Methods

• Programmatic statements / introductions – In his introduction to his Torah commentary, Ibn Ezra lays out his methodology in interpreting the Biblical text. He first discusses and rejects four distinct approaches to Biblical exegesis, and then presents his own.⁶² He dismisses:
• Christian allegorical and typological interpretations as these do not match the simple, literal sense of the text⁶³
• Karaite explanations⁶⁴ since they do not accept the Oral law
• The extensive philosophical treatises of the Geonim as they have no place in a peshat Torah commentary whose goal is to interpret the verses⁶⁵ 
• Homiletical exegesis which draws heavily on Midrash, seeing these as superfluous, having already been expressed by the Sages.⁶⁶
• Regarding his own methodology he writes that his goal is, "לבאר כל כתוב כמשפטו, ודקדוקו ופשוטו". Elsewhere in the introduction, he similarly notes: "ובעבותות הדקדוק נקשר / ובעיני הדעת יכשר", pointing to two hallmarks of Spanish exegesis: grammar and logic.⁶⁷ Each of these will be discussed below.
• Grammar – Listed below are examples of some of the grammatical issues discussed by Ibn Ezra:
  
• Scripture often uses abridged phrases and sentences.⁶⁸ Sometimes it omits prepositions.⁶⁹ It might employs an adjective but leaves out the noun which it qualifies.⁷⁰  Elsewhere, it omits the subject or object in a verse because it is implied by the verb used.⁷¹
• The vav is not always to be translated as "and". At times it is not to be translated. See I.E. on Gen. 1:2.
• When a verb in the singular governs a noun, the verb refers to each one of the plural. See I.E. on Gen. 49:22; Ecc.10:1.
• Scripture employs superfluous letters. See I.E. 1:5.
• Scripture at times employs the imperfect with the meaning of a perfect,⁷² the perfect with the meaning of an imperfect,⁷³or the perfect as a pluperfect.⁷⁴
• Reason  –
• Ibn Ezra will reject explanations of verses which do not stand up to reason.  See the discussion and examples above regarding his rejection of aggadic Midrashim which he finds illogical.⁷⁵  See also his comments to Hoshea 1:1⁷⁶

• Linguistics / Philology
• Use of cognate languages – Ibn Ezra explains difficult words both by looking for biblical parallels and by turning to cognate languages such as Arabic⁷⁷ or Aramaic.

Themes

• Philosophy –
  
• God – God is incorporeal, God is the All. Purpose of man is to know God, obey His laws, and cling to God.
  
• The Precepts:  According to Ibn Ezra’s calculations, there are only about sixty mitzvot in the Torah, though he believed that each one has infinite implications.⁷⁸  Ibn Ezra distinguished among three types of mitzvot.
• Rational laws. Ibn Ezra refers to these as pikkudim (deposits) because God deposited them in the mind, and they were known via human reasoning even before the Torah was given.⁷⁹ These include civil laws and injunctions against incest, adultery and the like.⁸⁰
• Symbolic precepts. This category includes commandments that serve as reminders of the rational laws or of precepts that all Israelites, both men and women, are obligated to be conscious of at all times. The Sabbath, which recalls creation, is an example.⁸¹
• Esoteric commandments.  This group includes commandments that possess a purpose that only a few can fathom.  An individual is obligated to observe  these commandments even if he does not understand their purpose or function.⁸² 
• Polemics against the Karaites
• Astrology – Ibn Ezra often speaks of astrological phenomenon and the role of the stars in determining what will take place on earth.  For example, he notes that each nation has its own unique constellation that guides it, while Hashem alone guides Israel.⁸³ He states that the arrangement of the stars reveals what is new and destined for each day, reflecting the mind of Hashem.⁸⁴

Textual Issues

• Manuscripts – 
• Printings – 
• Textual layers – See Ibn Ezra's Torah Commentary for discussion of Ibn Ezra's own additions to his First Commentary.

Sources

Significant Influences

• Earlier Sources –
• R. Saadiah Gaon (892-942 C.E.)
• R. Moshe, Ha-Kohen ibn Giqatilah(11th century)
• R. Solomon ibn Gabirol.(1020-1070 C.E.)
• Grammarians - R. Judah ibn Hayyuj ( c. 950-1000), R. Jonah ibn Janach (c. 920-c 970); R Menahchem ben Saruk (c. 910- c. 970 C.E.); Dunash ben Labrat (920-990 C.E.)
• Teachers – 
• Foils – 

Occasional Usage

• –

Possible Relationship.

Impact

Later exegetes⁸⁵ 

• Rabbi Yehudah He-Chasid⁸⁶
• Rabbi David Kimchi (1160-1235)
• Rabbi Moshe ben Nachman (1195-1270)
• Rabbi Levi ben Gershon (1288-1344).
• Rabbi Don Yitzchak Abravanel (1437-1508).
• Maimonides - The many parallels between the teachings of Ibn Ezra and those of Maimonides (1138–1204) have led some to suggest that the works of Ibn Ezra influenced Maimonides.⁸⁷ Ibn Ezra also impacted on the Chasidei Ashkenaz.⁸⁸ 

Supercommentaries

¹ Ibn Ezra's father's name was actually Meir, not Ezra.  Ibn Ezra was simply the name by which the family was known. See Ibn Ezra's Introduction to his Torah commentary, where he writes: "ויהי פתח דברך מאיר, לעבדך בן עבדך מאיר. ומישועות פניך תבא עזרה, לבן אמתך הנקרא בן עזרא".  See also Tosafot Taanit 20b who points to the Ibn Ezra family name as an example of a "nickname"..

² Due to conflicting data in several manuscripts, the dates of Ibn Ezra's birth and death are disputed. For a discussion of the issue, see: י.ל. פליישר, "באיזו שנה מת רבי אברהם אבן עזרא?" בתוך: ר"א אבן עזרא: קובץ מאמרים על תולדותיו ויציוריו (תל אביב, תש"ל): 5-16. Fleischer cites a manuscript from the Vienna national library, Kraft catalog number XXXI-39, which states that Ibn Ezra died on a Monday, on the first day of 1 Adar 4927 (January 23, 1167) at the age of seventy-five. If this date is accepted, then Ibn Ezra was born in 1092. [See also M. Friedlander, The Commentary of Ibn Ezra on Isaiah (London, 1873), p. xxvii n. 54.] However, in Ibn Ezra's introduction to his second commentary he states that he was 64 when he began to write it and several manuscripts include a note at the end of the second commentary to Shemot which states that he finished it in 4913 (1153). This would set his date of birth at (latest) 1088-89 and would make him 78-79 (rather than 75) in 1167. [See צ. גרץ, דברי ימי ישראל, מתורגם ע"י ש. פ. רבינוביץ, כרך 4, (וורשא, 1916): 212]  Fleischer, thus, questions the 1167 date, preferring to accept that Ibn Ezra was 75 at death, but that he must have died earlier, in 1164.  More recently, I. Kislev, "The Relationship between the Torah Commentaries Composed by R. Abraham Ibn Ezra in France and the Significance of this Relationship for the Biographical Chronology of the Commentator", Journal of Jewish Studies 60:2 (2009): 282-297 has resolved the contradiction in a different way, demonstrating that the second commentary to Bereshit and Shemot are not part of a single edition and need not have been written in the same year (meaning that Ibn Ezra need not have been 64 in 1153).

³ It is not clear what forced Ibn Ezra to leave Spain and begin his journeying.  In his introduction to his commentary on Eikhah, he writes, "הוצאתני מארץ ספרד חמת המציקים" but he does not specify to which troubles he is referring, the Almohad invasions or perhaps his personal penury.
Either way, his wanderings impacted his works on many fronts. Since his audience in Christians lands did not speak Arabic, he wrote in Hebrew.  This probably contributed to the fact that while the Arabic works of his predecessors (R. Saadia, Ibn Chiquitilla, and Ibn Balaam) have not survived, his have.  His travels also brought him into contact with many people, outside influences, and differing outlooks (including other sects such as the Karaites) which he would not have encountered in Moslem Spain. This both enriched his commentary (he cites many diverse people and opinions) and forced him at times to take strong polemical stances, especially against the Karaites.

⁴ According to S. Sela and G. Freudenthal, "Abraham Ibn Ezra's Scholarly Writing: A Chronological Listing", Aleph 6 (2006): 13-55,  Ibn Ezra wrote commentaries to Kohelet, Esther, Iyyov, Eikhah, Daniel, Shir HaShirim, Tehillim, Trei Asar, his first commentary to Torah, Ruth and Yeshayahu and translated the works of R. Yehuda ibn Hayyuj while in Italy.  He wrote his second commentaries to Esther, Daniel, Tehillim, Bereshit, Shir HaShirim, Shemot, and Trei Asar while in Rouen and his third commentary to Bereshit while in England.

⁵ Ibn Ezra's commentary reveals a knowledge of Talmudic literature. According to Ezra-Tzion Melammed,  מפרשי המקרא (ירושלים, 1978): 678-694, Ibn Ezra refers to Rabbinic literature about 500 times.  He is quoted by Tosafot on Rosh HaShanah 13a as engaging in discussion with R. Tam with regards to the Talmudic passage at hand, also attesting to his Talmudic knowledge . Nonetheless, Talmud was not Ibn Ezra's primary field of study and it should be noted that Rabbi Shelomo Luria did not consider Ibn Ezra to be a Talmudist ("לא היה בעל תלמוד"). He charges that Ibn Ezra attributed Biblical laws to the Rabbis and Rabbinical laws to the Bible and claims that he permitted that which is forbidden and prohibited that which is permitted, concluding that his exegesis is not to be followed in matters of law (Rabbi Shelomo Luria in his Introduction to the Yam Shel Shelomo on Tractate Chullin).

⁶ For discussion of Ibn Ezra's attitude towards astrology and how it influenced his exegesis, see Y. Langermann, "Some Astrological Themes in the Thought of Ibn Ezra", in Rabbi Abraham Ibn Ezra: Studies in the Writings of a Twelfth Century Polymath, eds. I. Twersky and J. Harris (Massachusetts, 1993): 28-55 and ש. סלע, אסטרולוגיה ופרשנות המקרא בהגותו של  אברהם אבן עזרא (רמת גן, 1999).  Ibn Ezra believed that astrology is a true science and was not only a student of the discipline but also a practitioner of its arts. He authored a number of works dealing with astrology, some of which were translated into Latin, and he played a major role in spreading the science in his travels.

⁷ Many of Ibn Ezra's poems have been collected by D. Kahana in his book, רבי אברהם אבן עזרא: קובץ חכמת הראב״ע (ורשה, תרפ"ב). See also the Ben Yehuda Project for a collection of his poems available online. In one of these, Ibn Ezra himself attests to his early poetic career, writing: "לפנים בנערים הבינותי שירים / בצואר העברים  נתתים לענקים" (ibid. p.22).  His poems are a source of much biographical information, speaking of his wanderings, poverty, and misfortunes. Thus, for instance, he humorously describes his threadbare cloak, "מעיל יש לי והוא כדמות כברה לחיטה להנפה או שעורה" (ibid, p. 11).  Elsewhere he laments his inability to make a living, "איגע להצליח ולא אוכל / כי עיותוני כוכבי שמי / לו אהיה סוחר בתכריכים / לא יגיעון אישם בכל ימי"  (ibid, p.10). One poem speaks of the illness which prompted his vow to expound upon the Torah ("ונדרתי לאל נדר י בחליי לבאר דת בהר סיני נתונה", ibid, p.70). Two of his poems are well known to all, having been incorporated among the songs sung on Shabbat, "כי אשמרה שבת" and "צמאה נפשי" (originally written as an introduction to the prayer of "נשמת כל חי").

⁸ During his wanderings it seems that Ibn Ezra supported himself by tutoring and writing commentaries for various wealthy patrons. In the introduction to his commentary on Eikhah, he writes:"ואני אברהם ב״ר מאיר מארץ מרחקים / הוצאתני מארץ ספרד חמת המציקים / וספרי אלהי בגלותי היו בידי מחוקקים".  He might also be alluding to such patrons in his introductory poem to the Torah, with a double entendre: "וכל תומכו מאושר".  It is likely for this reason that Ibn Ezra wrote more than one edition of his commentary on several books (Bereshit, Shemot, Trei Asar, Tehillim, Esther and Shir HaShirim), each for a different sponsor.

⁹ See his Second Commentary to Shemot 2:2 where, in discussing how to determine dates of birth, he writes, "I myself have tried it five times", perhaps implying that at the time of the writing, he had five children. [It is possible, however, that he is not speaking of his own family at all, but how he attempted to determine the dates of birth of other children.]

¹⁰ Yitzchak is reported to have converted to Islam while in Babylonia. See Chapter 3 of Al-Charizi's ספר תחכמוני where he writes, "וְיִצְחָק בְּנוֹ גָּם הוּא מִמְּקוֹר הַשִׁיר שָׁאָב. וְעַל שִירֵי הַבֵּן מִזִּיו הָאָב. אַךְ בְּבוֹאוֹ לְאַרְצוֹת מִזְרַח. כְּבוֹד ה' עָלָיו לֹא זָרָח. וְהֵסִיר מֵעָלָיו מְעִילֵי הַדָּת הַיְקָרִים. וּפָשַׁט אֶת בְּגָדָיו וְלָבַשׁ בְּגָדִים אֲחֵרִים.".  In a poem, "יריבוני עלי עזבי ברית אל" attributed to Yitzchak (though not all agree that he is fact the author), he confesses to his conversion, but claims that it was but an outward show ("ואם אומר משגע הוא "נביא א-ל, ואודנו בראשית כל תפלה, בפי אומר ולבי יענני: מכזב את ועדותך פסולה), closing with a plea for forgiveness, "כבר שבתי לצל כנפי שכינה / אבקש ממך הא-ל מחילה".

¹¹ See Ibn Ezra's heartrending poem, "אבי הבן" where he speaks of the death of his son: "אֲבִי הַבֵּן קְרַב לִסְפֹּד, כִּי אֵל מִמְּךָ רִחַק  / אֶת-בִּנְךָ אֶת-יְחִידְךָ אֲשֶׁר אָהַבְתָּ, אֶת יִצְחָק... אַךְ לָרִיק יָגַעְתִּי וְיָלַדְתִּי לַבֶּהָלָה / כִּי-אֵיךְ יִשְׂמַח לִבִּי – וַיִּגְוַע וַיָּמָת יִצְחָק".  Some, however, have suggested that the poem is not a lament over Yitzchak's death, but over his apostasy (see the previous note).

¹² Ibn Ezra was on close terms with Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi. In his Biblical commentary, he cites him over 20 times. Various traditions even suggest that there were family ties between the two. Some claim that Ibn Ezra's son Yitzchak was married to Yehuda HaLevi's daughter.  [See שלמה ד. גויטיין, "רבנו יהודה הלוי לאור כתבי הגניזה", תרביץ כ"ד (תשט"ו - 1955): 141-143]. Others claim that Ibn Ezra and Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi were cousins, while yet others suggest that Ibn Ezra married R. Yehuda HaLevi's daughter [See, for example, Abarbanel on Shemot 2:2, where he refers to Yehuda HaLevi as Ibn Ezra's "חותן". See also the discussion of E. Fleischer and M. Gil in their book יהודה הלוי ובני חוגו (ירושלים, 2001)]. However, there are no contemporary records that substantiate these traditions. Shelomo Pirchon (מחברת הערוך ד:ב) attests to Ibn Ezra's accompanying R. Yehuda HaLevi to Africa and a letter from the Cairo Geniza reveals that Ibn Ezra’s son, Yitzchak, accompanied R. Yehuda HaLevi on his journey to Egypt [See ש. ד. גויטיין, "הפרשה האחרונה בחיי רבנו יהודה הלוי", תרביץ כד (תשט"ו): 27.]  The two were on such intimate terms that after R. Yehuda HaLevi's death, Ibn Ezra wrote a poem in his honor, imagining the great poet inviting him to join him in the next word.

¹³ Rabbi Moses ibn Ezra (c. 1055- c.1135) was a prominent poet from a powerful family with connections to the court of Granada. He was brought up in wealth and culture. Rabbi Moses composed both secular and liturgical poetry. He and Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra were not related.

¹⁴ Rabbi Joseph ibn Tzadik was a dayyan (religious judge), philosopher and poet. His work Olam Katan (The Microcosm) was praised by Maimonides and is alluded to in Ibn Ezra's commentary on the Pentateuch.

¹⁵ Rabbi Jacob ben Meir Tam (1100 -1171) was a grandson of Rashi, a tosafist, and and one of the leading Talmudic authorities of his age. Ibn Ezra made the acquaintance of R. Tam in his journeys from southern to northern France. The two broke bread and Rabbenu Tam later paid homage to Ibn Ezra in a poem: "I am Abraham’s acquired servant / I bow and prostrate myself before him." Ibn Ezra responded:  "Is it right for the shepherd and knight of God’s people to lower his head in a letter to a despised man / Far be it for the angel of God to bow before Baalam."

¹⁶ See his introduction to Kohelet where he speaks of leaving Spain in haste and fear, "ומארצו נפרד, אשר היא בספרד, ואל רומי ירד, כנפש נבהלת."  The sentiment is echoed in his introduction to Eikhah, where he similarly speaks of being forced to leave due to oppressors or other troubles: "ואני אברהם ב״ר מאיר מארץ מרחקים / הוצאתני מארץ ספרד חמת המציקים".

¹⁷ M. Cohen, in his work, Under Crescent and Cross (New Jersey, 1994): 183, notes the uniqueness of the elegy, being the only “clear cut example of a poetical Jewish reaction to an outbreak of Islamic persecution.”  It reads, in part, "אֲהָהּ יָרַד עֲלֵי סְפָרַד רַע מִן הַשָּׁמַיִם / וְסֶפֶד רַב עֲלֵי מַעֲרָב לְזֹאת רָפוּ יָדַיִם / עֵינִי עֵינִי יֹרְדָה מַּיִם / בְּכוֹת עֵינַי בְּמַעְיָנַי עַל עִיר אַלְיוֹסְנָהּ / בְּאֵין אָשָׁם לְבָדָד שָׂם הַגּוֹלָה שָׁכְנָה / בְּאֵין סַלֵּף עֲדֵי אֶלֶף שְׁנַיִם וְשִׁבְעִים שָׁנָה / וּבָא יוֹמָהּ וְנָד עִמָּהּ וְגַם הָיְתָה כְּאַלְמָנָה / בְּאֵין תּוֹרָה וְאֵין מִקְרָא וְהַמִּשְׁנָה נִטְמְנָה". See here for the full text.

¹⁸ The following is not an exhaustive list. For a comprehensive listing of Ibn Ezra's scholarly works and their dates of composition, see S. Sela and G. Freudenthal, "Abraham Ibn Ezra's Scholarly Writing: A Chronological Listing", Aleph 6 (2006): 13-55.

¹⁹ Ibn Ezra refers to his first commentary on Torah as "ספר הישר". Several English translations exist.  See: Ibn Ezra’s Commentary on the Pentateuch, translated & annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur Silver, Translation of Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch, translated by Allan R. Benyowitz andJ. F. Shachter's translation of the commentaries to Vayikra and Devarim.

²⁰ For an English translation, see: Ibn Ezra on Isaiah, ed. and translated by Michael Friedlander (London, 1873).

²¹ For an English translation, see: Abraham Ibn Ezra’s Commentary on the First Book of Psalms, translated & annotated by H. Norman Strickman (Boston, 2009, 2016).

²² For an English translation of the commentary to Shir HaShirim, see: Ibn Ezra's Commentary on The Song of Songs, Translations and Annotations, by Richard A. Block (Hebrew Union College, 1982).  Ibn Ezra's Commentary on Kohelet has been translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman.

²³ It has been suggested that due to Ibn Ezra's wanderings and financial difficulties, if he found a patron who requested him to write a commentary on a specific book, even if he had already done so, he would write another. This is supported by his introduction to Safah Berurah where Ibn Ezra shares how a student had asked him to write a book about grammar, and Ibn Ezra was hesitant due to his having already composed several grammatical works in Rome, yet with the student's urging he acquiesced to write another. See discussion in א. מונדשיין "שיטה שלישית לפירושו של אברהם אבן עזרא לתורה?" בתוך:אור ליעקב מחקרים במקרא ובמגילות מדבר יהודה  (ירושלים, תשנ"ז):167-169.

²⁴ In his introduction to the work he writes that he was 64 at the time of its composition and notes that he is writing it in fulfillment of a vow made when he was extremely sick. The commentary has survived only through Parashat Lekh Lekha.

²⁵ On the relationship between the second commentaries to Bereshit and Shemot and whether they were part of one edition, see I. Kislev, "The Relationship between the Torah Commentaries Composed by R. Abraham Ibn Ezra in France and the Significance of this Relationship for the Biographical Chronology of the Commentator", Journal of Jewish Studies 60:2 (2009): 282-297

²⁶ According to S. Sela and G. Freudenthal  the first commentaries were all written  between 1140-1145, while Ibn Ezra was in Rome and Lucca.  A colophon dates the commentary on Kohelet to 1140.  The fact that it does not reference any of Ibn Ezra's other works and mentions his flight to Rome, suggests that it was the first work written there.  Several of his other works also contain colophons or references which aid in their dating. For example, in his commentary to Bereshit 33:10, Ibn Ezra notes that it was written while in Lucca.
Ibn Ezra's second commentaries were written in Rouen and date between 1153-1157. A colophon to the book of Daniel dates it explicitly to 1155, a colophon to the commentary on Psalms and another to Trei Asar date each to 1156 (one to Elul, the second to Tevet) and a colophon to Exodus dates it to 1153 while Ibn Ezra's comments to Exodus 12:2 attest to its being written in Rouen. [Some, though, have disputed this last date. See the discussion above regarding Ibn Ezra's dates of birth and death.]

²⁷ These cover parts of Parashat Vayishlakh (33:1-35:26) and Vayechi (47:28-49:10).  In the colophon to each section, it states that they were recorded by R.Yosef b. Yaakov of  Maudeville, in his words, but according to the substance of what ibn Ezra had taught. See Bereshit 35 and 47.

²⁸ See his comments to Devarim 32:4 (where he references an explanation to a verse in Yehoshua), 29:20 (referencing his comments to Shofetim 11:21; see also Ramban Vayikra 27:29 who cites Ibn Ezra on this verse), Shemot 27:21 and Tehillim 51:2 (where he refers the reader  to explanations on Shemuel I 3:3 and Shemuel II 12) and Devarim 21:17 (regarding a comment on Melakhim II 2:9).  Radak also cites Ibn Ezra's explanation of Shemuel I 27:10.
Ibn Ezra also references his explanations to Yirmeyahu (see IE Vayikra 20:20), Yechezekel (See IE First Cmmentary Shemot 28:41), Mishlei (See IE Shemot 31:3), Ezra-Nechemyah (see IE Devarim 23:2) and Divrei HaYamim (see IE Vayikra 26:34..

²⁹ U. Simon, "Abraham Ibn Ezra" in HBOT 1:2 (Gottingen, 2000): 377-387 notes that already in the fourteenth century, supercommentaries attest that they did not have any of Ibn Ezra's commentaries to the Former Prophets, Yirmeyahu, Yechezkel, Mishlei, Ezra-Nechemyah or Divrei HaYamim.

³⁰ See U. Simon, ibid..

³¹ Ed. M. Wolinsky (Berlin, 1923).

³² Ed. G. H. Lipmann (Furth, 1827).

³³ Ed. G. H. Lipmann (Frankfurt, 1843).

³⁴ Ed. G. H. Lipmann (Furth 1839)

³⁵ Ed. Aloni (Jerusalem, 1975).

³⁶ Reshit Hokhmah. Edited and translated into English. By R. Levi and F. Kenterah. Balimore, 1939.

³⁷ Two versions. First version: Ed. byY. L. Fleisher. Jerusalem, 1951. Second version. Ed. by N. Ben-Menahem. Jerusalem, 1951.

³⁸ Two versions. First version: Ed. Edelman Koenigsburg 1845. Second version . Ed. by Judah ben Solomon Warsaw 1856.

³⁹ Ta’ame Luhot Al-Ku’arizmi. The Introduction to this work was published by Kahanah in his Rabbi Avraham ibn Ezra , Warsaw 1922.

⁴⁰ Sefer Ha-Me’orot, Ed. Y.L. Fleisher, Yearbook Of Jewish Studies in Romania. Vol 5 (Bucharest, 1932).

⁴¹ Despite this goal or providing rationalizations, it is important to note that Ibn Ezra emphasizes that observance of the commandments should not be conditional on understanding.  He compares a person who refuses to observe the laws until he knows the reasoning behind them to a child who refuses to eat bread until he understands how the ground is plowed, the grain planted, the flour sifted, or the dough kneaded and baked. "The correct thing for a child to do is eat normally and, as he grows, ask a little at a time until all of his questions are answered" (Yesod Mora VeSod HaTorah 8:1).

⁴² The essays are occasionally introduced with the words "Avraham the Author says", or "the Words of Avraham".

⁴³ See Ibn Ezra on Ex. 3:15 and 33:21.

⁴⁴ See the second Commentary to Shemot 20:1.

⁴⁵ See his commentaries to Shemot 32:1.

⁴⁶ See his First Commentary on Shemot 33:18 and his Second Commentary to Shemot 33:21.

⁴⁷ As discussed above, this was likely a result of his wanderings.  In the Christian lands in which he traveled, people did not understand Arabic. The choice of language is also likely the reason that the commentary survived.

⁴⁸ This might, at times, have been intentional, as when his content was controversial. It is also possible that in certain places in his commentary, Ibn Ezra was targeting the educated elite rather than the masses and / or writing for students or patrons with whom he learned personally and would therefore comprehend his truncated style.  A third factor which might contribute to the difficulty is that Ibn Ezra was often forced to coin Hebrew terms for mathematical or astronomical concepts which were not in use at the time, and might not have been accepted by future generations..

⁴⁹ This is likely what sparked so many supercommentaries.

⁵⁰ This distinction is laid out already in his introductory remarks to Torah, where he writes that he plans  "לבאר כל כתוב כמשפטו, ודקדוקו ופשוטו / רק במצות ובחקים אסמוך על קדמונינו". He then elaborates, exclaiming that "heaven forbid" that he would ever explain against the Sages, "הרבים ונכבדים בחכמתם ומעשיהם", but notes that this is only true with regards to mitzvot. Elsewhere, "בכתוב שאין שם מצוה", he feels no compunction to follow his predecessors, "ומהשם לבדו אירא, ולא אשא פנים בתורה".
See, similarly, his introduction to the First Cםmmentary: "ובעבור הדרש, דרך הפשט איננה סרה / כי שבעים פנים לתורה / רק בתורות ובמשפטים ובחוקים / מצאנו שני טעמים לפסוקים / והטעם האחד כנגד המעתיקים, שהיו כולם צדיקים / נשען על אמתם בלי ספק בידים חזקים".
Ibn Ezra's distinction is rooted in his strong desire to explain the text according to its simple sense, using the rules of grammar and logic, on the one hand, and his need to uphold the Oral Law and opinions of the Sages in the face of Karaites who rejected these. Unlike Rashbam, he did not feel that he was at liberty to explain legal sections of Torah against the Midrash, for that would fuel the arguments of his opponents and lead many to question or reject the legal rulings of the Sages.

⁵¹ These criteria apply also to any predecessor's explanations or the text itself.

⁵² He writes, "שאם מצאנו באחד הנזכרים, דבר שיכחיש אחד משלשה דברים, כי האחד שקול הדעת הישרה, או כתוב מכחיש אחר בדרך סברא, או יכחיש הקבלה הנגמרה, אז נחשוב לתקן הכל כפי יכלתינו, בדרך משל או תוספות אות או מלה על דרך לשונינו". Ibn Ezra appears to view "הקבלה הנגמרה" as halakhic traditions rather than homiletic expositions of the Sages.  Ibn ezra's criteria are heavily influences by R. Saadia Gaon before him,

⁵³ For examples where Ibn Ezra rejects such interpretations, see Ibn Ezra Second Commentary Bereshit 11:29, First Commentary Bereshit 19:12, 22:19, 24:2, 25:1, 28:11, 39:6, and Shemot 24:14.  See also Ibn Ezra's introduction to Eikhah.

⁵⁴ For examples, see Ibn Ezra First Commentary Bereshit 22:6-8, 31:19, 38:1 (and Shemot 24:14), 46:27, Second Commentary Shemot 7:24, 18:21, 20:1, 25:5, 31:1.

⁵⁵ See, for instance, his First Commentary Bereshit 11:29, 22:6-8, Second Commentary Bereshit 11:28, Shemot 1:16,15:22, 25:5, 25:18, 26:18-28, 40:2, Yeshayahu 1:1 and First Commentary to Amos 5:25.

⁵⁶ Thus, Ibn Ezra notes that the Rabbinic statement that “Noah drank from his vineyard on the day he planted it” is not to be taken literally. Neither is the Rabbinic statement that that God showed Moses the knot of the tefillin to be taken according to its plain meaning. "These words (of the sages) are correct. However, its meaning is not in accordance with that of the wise men of this generation who interpret the Rabbinic statement literally. On the contrary, this has a deeply hidden secret meaning."

⁵⁷ See, for example, First Commentary Bereshit 5:29 (where he mocks those who question who Kayin or Shet married), 10:8 (where he notes that there is no need to look into the meaning of various names) or 29:17 (where he wonders why some question why Leah's eyes were "dim", noting that the question assumes that all people need be created alike).

⁵⁸ He writes, "כי יש מקומות שידרשו בו קדמונינו לזכר ולאסמכתא בעלמא, והם ידעו הפשט כי להם נתנה כל חכמה."  See Yesod Mora 6 similarly, "At times they find clear evidence for their traditions in the Torah; at other times, they find mere supports for their traditions."  For examples where Ibn Ezra suggests that a Midrashic interpretation is not meant to be the simple sense of the verse, and is merely attached to it as a reminder or the like, see Ibn Ezra's Second Commentary Bereshit 1:28, First Commentary Bereshit 16:3,  First Commentary Shemot 12:14, 20:7, 21:8-11 (where he lays out the principle explicitly), Second Commentary Shemot 20:20, 21:8, Vayikra 19:20, 21:2, 22:7 and 23:40.

⁵⁹ See, for example, the First Commentary to Shemot 35:3 (על כן אנחנו צריכים בדברי כל המצות לקבלה ומסורת ותורה שבעל פה), Shemot 21:24, second commentary Shemot 30:33, Vayikra 11:8, 12:6, 20:9, and 25:30.

⁶⁰ In this he differs from Rashbam,who is quite willing to accept the validity of a peshat interpretation of a verse which contradicts halakhah.

⁶¹ See, for example his comments to Shemot 12:24 (second commentary) where he notes that one might have thought that the words "וּשְׁמַרְתֶּם אֶת הַדָּבָר הַזֶּה לְחׇק לְךָ וּלְבָנֶיךָ עַד עוֹלָם" refer to the immediately preceding verse which speaks of the smearing of blood,and that this should apply to all future generations.  However, one must rely on the Sages that it refers instead only to the Pesach mentioned earlier. For other examples, see Shemot 13:9 (first commentary), Vayikra 21:2, 25:45, Bemidbar 5:7 or 15:38-39.

⁶² He discusses the various approaches in both versions of his Torah commentary, but lists them in a different order.

⁶³ He notes that only when a verse goes against reason might one interpret it metaphorically, but "כל דבר שהדעת לא תכחישנו, כפשוטו ומשפטו נפרשנו".

⁶⁴ Ibn Ezra refers to them as "צדוקין", but mentions several by name: Anan, Binyamin, Ben Mashiach.

⁶⁵ He also notes that such pieces tend to be above the head of the masses: "ומנפשות אנשי דורנו נשגבה" and do not contribute to their understanding of Torah.

⁶⁶ He writes, "ואחר שימצאו המדרשים בספרי הקדמונים, ולמה ייגעונו לכותבם שנית אלה האחרונים".

⁶⁷ This matches the criteria discussed above regarding when Ibn Ezra finds it fitting to reject earlier interpretations - if they contradict a verse, logic, or tradition.

⁶⁸ See I.E. on Gen. 2:9; Gen. 6:13.

⁶⁹ The omitted preposition is to be supplied by the reader. See I.E. on Ex. 20:11.

⁷⁰ See I.E. on Ecc. 10:1.

⁷¹ See I.E. on Gen. 25:25; 48:1; 50:26.

⁷² See I.E. on Ex. 15:1.

⁷³ See I.E. on Gen. 23::13.

⁷⁴ See I.E. on Gen. 2:8

⁷⁵ For one example, see Shemot 25:3-5 where he discusses the question of where the nation as Accacia trees with which to build the Mishkan, dismissing those who suggest that they took these out of Egypt. He notes that the nation would have had no reason to think to carry heavy planks of wood while fleeing Egypt, making the explanation illogical.

⁷⁶ Here, he dismisses the possibility that Hoshe actually married a prostitute, noting that it would not make sense for Hashem to command such a thing.

⁷⁷ See Ibn Ezra's conclusion to his second commentary on Shir HaShirim where he speaks of the close connection between Hebrew and Arabic,  justifying why he will often explain a Biblical word by looking to the cognate language.

⁷⁸ See Strickman, H. Norman, "Abraham ibn Ezra’s Yesod Mora.” Ḥakirah, the Flatbush Journal of Jewish Law and Thought, 12: 156.  See also י. כהן ואץ סימון, יסוד מורא וסוד התורה (בר אילן, 2007): 96.

⁷⁹ Yesdo Mora 5:1. The Secret of the Torah, p 5.

⁸⁰ Most of  the laws of the Decalogue (not including Shabbat) would be classified in this category.

⁸¹ Yesod Mora 5:2; The Secret of the Torah, p. 78.

⁸² A person who refuses to observe the laws until he knows the reason for their observance "will be like a child who refuses to eat bread until he first knows how the ground was plowed, the grain planted, harvested, winnowed, cleaned, ground, sifted, kneaded and baked. If a child acts thusly, he will surely die of starvation. The correct thing for a child to do is eat normally and, as he grows, ask a little at a time until all of his questions are answered. Similarly, an intelligent person can ultimately learn the very many clearly stated reasons, which the Torah itself offers for the precepts. However, there are commandments the reason for which “only one man in a thousand knows.” (Ibid.11:7; The Secret of the Torah, pp. 159,160.)

⁸³ See his comments to Devarim 4:19-20.

⁸⁴ See Ibn Ezra Tehillim 19:2-5 and Tehillim 69:29, "All the decrees that are destined to come are there [in the heavens] written."

⁸⁵ See Dan Yosef, Iyunim Be-Sifrut Chasidut Ashkenaz. Israel, 1975, p. 169-171.
Also see Lifshitz, Yosef Yitzchak. Echad Be-Khol Dimyonot One God; Many Images. Israel, 2015, p. 68-72.

⁸⁶ See Dan Yosef, Iyunim Be-Sifrut Chasidut Ashkenaz. Israel, 1975, p. 169-171.
Also see Lifshitz, Yosef Yitzchak. Echad Be-Khol Dimyonot One God; Many Images. Israel, 2015, p. 68-72.

⁸⁷ For discussion, see H. Norman Strickman, Abraham ibn Ezra's Yesod Mora, Vol. 12.pp.159-165 and I. Twersky, Did R. Abraham ibn Ezra Influence Maimonides? In Rabbi. Abraham ibn Ezra: Studies In The Writings Of a Twelfth Century Jewish Polymath. Harvard University Press. 1993

⁸⁸ See J. Dan, Rabbi Judah He-Hasid, (Israel, 2005):122-130 and J. Lifshitz, One God; Many Images :Dialectical Thought In Hasidei Ashkenaz (Israel, 2015): 68-72.