Difference between revisions of "Dictionary:Changing Meanings/0"

From AlHaTorah.org
Jump to navigation Jump to search
m
m
Line 5: Line 5:
 
<div><b><center><span class="highlighted-notice">This topic has not yet undergone editorial review</span></center></b></div>
 
<div><b><center><span class="highlighted-notice">This topic has not yet undergone editorial review</span></center></b></div>
 
<category>Within the Biblical Period
 
<category>Within the Biblical Period
<p>There are many words whose meaning might have changed from one period within Tanakh to another:</p>
+
<p>There are many words whose meaning might have changed from one period within Tanakh to another:</p><ul>
<ul>
 
 
<li><b>בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל</b> – In most of Sefer Bereshit<fn>See Bereshit 42:5, 45:2 and 46:5. In several other verses () the meaning of the term is ambiguous.&#160; See discussion below.</fn> and the opening verses of Sefer Shemot<fn>The phrase "בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל" in Shemot 1:1 clearly refers to the sons of Yaakov but verse 7 is ambiguous and could refer either to Yaakov's sons or to the entire Israelite nation. This depends on whether the verse is still part of the opening summary of Sefer Bereshit (cf. Bereshit 47:27) or is referring to events after the brothers' death.</fn> the term&#160; refers to the sons of Yaakov, whereas afterwards it refers to the nation of Israel.&#160; The turning point might be Shemot 1:9, which uniquely states "<b>עַם</b> בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל",&#8206;<fn>This is the only place in Tanakh in which this exact term is used and there are only two other places in Tanakh (Shemot 3:10, 7:4) where Hashem uses a similar term, "עַמִּי בְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל".</fn> perhaps to clarify that the people have become a nation.<fn>See R. Hirsch on Shemot 1:1 and 9 who implies this.</fn>&#160; There are several cases in which the meaning of the term is ambiguous:</li>
 
<li><b>בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל</b> – In most of Sefer Bereshit<fn>See Bereshit 42:5, 45:2 and 46:5. In several other verses () the meaning of the term is ambiguous.&#160; See discussion below.</fn> and the opening verses of Sefer Shemot<fn>The phrase "בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל" in Shemot 1:1 clearly refers to the sons of Yaakov but verse 7 is ambiguous and could refer either to Yaakov's sons or to the entire Israelite nation. This depends on whether the verse is still part of the opening summary of Sefer Bereshit (cf. Bereshit 47:27) or is referring to events after the brothers' death.</fn> the term&#160; refers to the sons of Yaakov, whereas afterwards it refers to the nation of Israel.&#160; The turning point might be Shemot 1:9, which uniquely states "<b>עַם</b> בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל",&#8206;<fn>This is the only place in Tanakh in which this exact term is used and there are only two other places in Tanakh (Shemot 3:10, 7:4) where Hashem uses a similar term, "עַמִּי בְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל".</fn> perhaps to clarify that the people have become a nation.<fn>See R. Hirsch on Shemot 1:1 and 9 who implies this.</fn>&#160; There are several cases in which the meaning of the term is ambiguous:</li>
 
<ul>
 
<ul>
Line 28: Line 27:
 
<li>See also&#160;<multilink><a href="LekachTovShemot1-1" data-aht="source">Lekach Tov</a><a href="LekachTovShemot1-1" data-aht="source">Shemot 1:1</a><a href="LekachTovEsther4-14" data-aht="source">Esther 4:14</a><a href="R. Toviah b. Eliezer (Lekach Tov)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Toviah b. Eliezer</a></multilink> and&#160;<multilink><a href="ChizkuniShemot1-1" data-aht="source">Chizkuni</a><a href="ChizkuniShemot1-1" data-aht="source">Shemot 1:1</a><a href="ChizkuniShemot22-2" data-aht="source">Shemot 22:2</a><a href="R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach (Chizkuni)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach</a></multilink> on&#160;<a href="Shemot1-1" data-aht="source">Shemot 1:1</a> who understand the phrase&#160; "אִישׁ וּבֵיתוֹ בָּאוּ" there also to refer to Yaakov's sons and their wives. See, though,&#160;<multilink><a href="IbnEzraKohelet3-11" data-aht="source">Ibn Ezra</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotSecondCommentary1-1" data-aht="source">Shemot Second Commentary 1:1</a><a href="R. Avraham ibn Ezra" data-aht="parshan">About R. Avraham ibn Ezra</a></multilink> who argues against this reading, noting: "אין בית בכל המקרא אשה".</li>
 
<li>See also&#160;<multilink><a href="LekachTovShemot1-1" data-aht="source">Lekach Tov</a><a href="LekachTovShemot1-1" data-aht="source">Shemot 1:1</a><a href="LekachTovEsther4-14" data-aht="source">Esther 4:14</a><a href="R. Toviah b. Eliezer (Lekach Tov)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Toviah b. Eliezer</a></multilink> and&#160;<multilink><a href="ChizkuniShemot1-1" data-aht="source">Chizkuni</a><a href="ChizkuniShemot1-1" data-aht="source">Shemot 1:1</a><a href="ChizkuniShemot22-2" data-aht="source">Shemot 22:2</a><a href="R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach (Chizkuni)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach</a></multilink> on&#160;<a href="Shemot1-1" data-aht="source">Shemot 1:1</a> who understand the phrase&#160; "אִישׁ וּבֵיתוֹ בָּאוּ" there also to refer to Yaakov's sons and their wives. See, though,&#160;<multilink><a href="IbnEzraKohelet3-11" data-aht="source">Ibn Ezra</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotSecondCommentary1-1" data-aht="source">Shemot Second Commentary 1:1</a><a href="R. Avraham ibn Ezra" data-aht="parshan">About R. Avraham ibn Ezra</a></multilink> who argues against this reading, noting: "אין בית בכל המקרא אשה".</li>
 
</ul>
 
</ul>
<li><b><b>גּוֹי </b></b>– Though the Sages use this word to refer to a non-Jew,<fn>See NMekhilta deRabbi Yishmael 12:16, 12:43, Mishna A"Z 2:6, 4:8, tosefta berahot 6:18</fn> in Tanakh it simply means nation, and can even refer to the Nation of Israel.<fn>See, for instance, Bereshit 18, Bereshit 46, devarim 26:5 or Yehoshua 4:1.&#160; see also the debate in regarding Devarim 32:28 in Sifre Devarim.</fn> In his Sefer HaShorashim, Radak attempts to explain the change in usage, suggesting that when the Sages wanted to identify a person as a non-Israelite but did not know his nationality, they would refer to him as simply "גוי", so as to say that he was from a different nation. </li>
+
<li><b><b>גּוֹי </b></b>– Though the Sages use this word to refer to a non-Jew,<fn>See NMekhilta deRabbi Yishmael 12:16, 12:43, Mishna A"Z 2:6, 4:8, tosefta berahot 6:18</fn> in Tanakh it simply means nation, and can even refer to the Nation of Israel.<fn>See, for instance, <a href="Bereshit18-18" data-aht="source">Bereshit 18:18</a>, <a href="Bereshit46-3" data-aht="source">Bereshit 46:3</a>,&#160;<a href="Devarim26-5" data-aht="source">Devarim 26:5</a> or <a href="Yehoshua4-1" data-aht="source">Yehoshua 4:1</a>.&#160; See also the debate in <a href="SifreDevarim32-28" data-aht="source">Sifre Devarim 32:28</a> regarding&#160;<a href="Devarim32-28" data-aht="source">Devarim 32:28</a>.&#160;&#160;<multilink><a href="ShadalDevarim32-43" data-aht="source">Shadal</a><a href="ShadalDevarim32-43" data-aht="source">Devarim 32:43</a><a href="R. Shemuel David Luzzatto (Shadal)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto</a></multilink> goes further to suggest that even the plural form "גויים" in Devarim 32:43 might refer to the Nation of Israel.</fn> In his Sefer HaShorashim, Radak attempts to explain the change in usage, suggesting that when the Sages wanted to identify a person as a non-Israelite but did not know his nationality, they would refer to him as simply "גוי", so as to say that he was from a different nation.</li>
 
<li><b>דָּמִֽים</b> – In Tanakh this word is related to blood /life whereas in Mishnaic Hebrew it also takes the meaning of "money".<fn>See, for instance,&#160; <a href="MishnaMaaserSheni1-5" data-aht="source">Mishna Maaser Sheni 1:5</a>, <a href="MishnaBavaMetzia5-3" data-aht="source">Mishna Bava Metzia 5:3</a> and<a href="MishnaBavaMetzia5-9" data-aht="source"> 5:9</a>, and <a href="MishnaBavaBatra2-7" data-aht="source">Mishna Bava Batra 2:7</a>.</fn>&#160;</li>
 
<li><b>דָּמִֽים</b> – In Tanakh this word is related to blood /life whereas in Mishnaic Hebrew it also takes the meaning of "money".<fn>See, for instance,&#160; <a href="MishnaMaaserSheni1-5" data-aht="source">Mishna Maaser Sheni 1:5</a>, <a href="MishnaBavaMetzia5-3" data-aht="source">Mishna Bava Metzia 5:3</a> and<a href="MishnaBavaMetzia5-9" data-aht="source"> 5:9</a>, and <a href="MishnaBavaBatra2-7" data-aht="source">Mishna Bava Batra 2:7</a>.</fn>&#160;</li>
 
<ul>
 
<ul>
Line 76: Line 75:
 
<ul>
 
<ul>
 
<li><b></b></li>
 
<li><b></b></li>
<li><b>נִין וָנֶכֶד</b>&#8206;&#8206;<fn>For a comprehensive discussion of the evolution of the terms, see Sh. Sharvit,&#160; "הנין יהנכד - מן המקרא ללשון ימינו" in 'עיוני מקרא ופרשנות ח (Ramat Gan, 2008): 165-174.</fn>&#8206;&#8206;&#8206;&#8206;&#8206; – This pair of words appears three times in Tanakh,<fn>see Bereshit 21:23, Yeshayahu 14:22 and Iyyov 18:19.</fn> always in this order.&#160; As such, in context, the terms would appear to mean child and grandchild respectively,<fn>See, for instance, the translation of Onkelos or Targum Yonatan.</fn> or perhaps refer more generally to descendants (with no differentiation between the terms).<fn>See, for example, the Septuagint and R"Y Ibn Janach.</fn> Grandchildren and great-grandchildren (the third and fourth generations) are instead referred to as "שלש" and "רבע".&#8206;<fn>See Bereshit 50:23, Shemot 20:4, Shemot 34:7, and Devarim 5:8</fn>&#160; In Modern Hebrew, in contrast, נין and נכד no longer take on the general connotation of "descendant", and the chronological order is reversed and moved down a generation, with נכד referring to a grandson and נין referring to a great-grandson.</li>
+
<li><b>נִין וָנֶכֶד</b>&#8206;&#8206;<fn>For a comprehensive discussion of the evolution of the terms, see Sh. Sharvit,&#160; "הנין יהנכד - מן המקרא ללשון ימינו" in 'עיוני מקרא ופרשנות ח (Ramat Gan, 2008): 165-174.</fn>&#8206;&#8206;&#8206;&#8206;&#8206; – This pair of words appears three times in Tanakh,<fn>see Bereshit 21:23, Yeshayahu 14:22 and Iyyov 18:19.</fn> always in this order.&#160; As such, in context, the terms would appear to mean child and grandchild respectively,<fn>See, for instance, the translation of Onkelos or Targum Yonatan.</fn> or perhaps refer more generally to descendants (with no differentiation between the terms).<fn>See, for example, the Septuagint and R"Y Ibn Janach.</fn> Grandchildren and great-grandchildren are instead referred to as "שלש" and "רבע" (the third and fourth generations).&#8206;<fn>See Bereshit 50:23, Shemot 20:4, Shemot 34:7, and Devarim 5:8</fn>&#160; In Modern Hebrew, in contrast, נין and נכד no longer take on the general connotation of "descendant", and the chronological order is reversed and moved down a generation, with נכד referring to a grandson and נין referring to a great-grandson.</li>
 
</ul>
 
</ul>
 
</category>
 
</category>

Version as of 23:54, 4 October 2020

Lexical: Changing Meanings

This topic has not yet undergone editorial review

Within the Biblical Period

There are many words whose meaning might have changed from one period within Tanakh to another:

  • בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל – In most of Sefer Bereshit1 and the opening verses of Sefer Shemot2 the term  refers to the sons of Yaakov, whereas afterwards it refers to the nation of Israel.  The turning point might be Shemot 1:9, which uniquely states "עַם בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל",‎3 perhaps to clarify that the people have become a nation.4  There are several cases in which the meaning of the term is ambiguous:
    • Bereshit 32:33 "לֹא יֹאכְלוּ בְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל אֶת גִּיד הַנָּשֶׁה" – See the debate in Bavli Chulin 100b whether this refers to something Yaakov's sons accepted upon themselves or whether this was a prohibition first commanded to the nation at at Sinai and placed in Sefer Bereshit to provide the reasoning.5
    • Bereshit 36:30
  • שבת
  • חדש – In Torah the word refers to a month, while in Neviim it also takes on the meaning of "Rosh Chodesh", the first of the month.6
  • חתן

Biblical vs. Rabbinic Hebrew

  • אמה – In Tanakh, the word אמה means either maidservant (when spelled without a dagesh) or a unit of measure (when spelled with a dagesh). In Rabbinic Hebrew, it may be used to refer also to the forearm itself.
    • See the dispute in Bavli SotahSotah 12bAbout the Bavli regarding the meaning of the phrase "וַתִּשְׁלַח אֶת אֲמָתָהּ וַתִּקָּחֶהָ" in Shemot 2:5, where one opinion suggests that the daughter of Paroh extended her arm, rather than sending her servant, to retrieve Moshe. Ibn Ezra Shemot First Commentary 2:5About R. Avraham ibn Ezrarejects this possibility noting both the missing dagesh7 and the fact that this usage is not found in Tanakh: "אמה מדה היא, כי הזרוע לא תקרא אמה".‎8
  • בית - In Tanakh, this root generally refers to either a physical house9 or receptacle,10 or a family or household.11 In Rabbinic Hebrew it is also understood more narrowly to refer specifically to a wife.12
  • גּוֹי – Though the Sages use this word to refer to a non-Jew,13 in Tanakh it simply means nation, and can even refer to the Nation of Israel.14 In his Sefer HaShorashim, Radak attempts to explain the change in usage, suggesting that when the Sages wanted to identify a person as a non-Israelite but did not know his nationality, they would refer to him as simply "גוי", so as to say that he was from a different nation.
  • דָּמִֽים – In Tanakh this word is related to blood /life whereas in Mishnaic Hebrew it also takes the meaning of "money".15 
  • ה״א הקריאה – Contrast Ibn Ezra on Bemidbar 15:15 who claims that there is no such thing as a "ה״א לקריאה" in Biblical Hebrew17 with Ibn Balaam who suggests that though rare, it does exist.   As examples he points to Bemidbar 15:15, Yirmeyahu 2:31, Mikhah 2:7 and Shir HaShirim 8:13.
  • חותן/חותנת and חם/חמות – Biblical Hebrew distinguishes between a father-in-law on the husband and wife's side, using distinct terms for each.  The wife's father is referred to as a חותן,‎18 while the husband's father is referred to as a חם.‎19 Rabbinic Hebrew, in contrast, does not preserve the distinction and uses the terms חם and חמות to refer also to the parents of the wife.20  For further discussion, see חֹתֵן / חֹתֶנֶת.
  • כל – In Biblical Hebrew the word "" can mean either all or "most".
  • מלאך – In Biblical Hebrew "מַלְאָךְ" refers to any type of messenger,21 not specifically an angel. Divine messengers are singled out by the terms "מַלְאַךְ אֱלֹהִים" or "'מַלְאַךְ ה".‎22  In Rabbinic Hebrew, in contrast, "מַלְאָךְ" takes on the much more specific connotation of "angel". It is possible that the change is usage is related to the increasing prevalence of the word "שליח". This synonym never appears in Tanakh, but by Mishnaic times it is widespread, becoming the preferred word to express a human messenger, allowing for a narrower definition of "מלאך". Tanakh's broader definition of the word allows for ambiguity and in several cases, commentators debate whether an angel or human messenger is referred to. 
    • See the discussion in Avraham's Guests – Angels or Men regarding the identity of the "מלאכים" / "אנשים" in Bereshit 18-19.
    • See also Ralbag regarding the "מלאך" who appeared to Hagar in both Bereshit 16 and 21, those who meet Yaakov in Bereshit 32:2, and those that appeared to Gidon and to Manoach and many others.  In each case Ralbag suggests that the verse refers to a prophet of Hashem.23
  • מס – Hoil MosheShemot 1:11Bemidbar 31:28About R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi points out that "מס" in Tanakh refers to a labor tax rather than a monetary one,24 noting that the Biblical term for a monetary tribute is מנחה  or מכס. 
    • This relates to a dispute among commentators regarding how to understand the role of the "tax officers" mentioned in Shemot 1:11. Though many assume this refers to those who oversaw the forced labor, RalbagShemot Beur HaMilot 1:11About R. Levi b. Gershom suggests it refers to collection of a fiscal payment.  Ralbag opines that only those who could not afford the monetary fine were forced to labor for Paroh. See discussion in Who was Enslaved in Egypt.
  • מקום – Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 28:11Esther First Commentary IntroductionAbout R. Avraham ibn Ezra notes that in Tanakh, the word "מקום" never refers to Hashem and always connotes a location.  It is only the Sages who use the term to refer also to Hashem due to his omnipresence.25
  • עולם Ibn EzraKohelet 3:11Tehillim Second Commentary 66:7About R. Avraham ibn Ezra notes that throughout Tanakh the word "עוֹלָם" is a marker of time, connoting a long duration or eternity. It is only in Rabbinic sources that the word takes on the extra meaning of "world".28 [In Tanakh, the word used to describe the world is "תֵּבֵל".]
  • עַם הָאָרֶץ – In Rabbinic Hebrew this term refers to someone who does not have much Torah knowledge or is not careful in keeping the laws of purity or tithing.30  In Tanakh, in contrast, it refers to those living in the land.31
  • צדקה - Though, in Rabbinic sources, the word צדקה refers to charity and giving of alms, R"Y KaraDevarim 24:13-14About R. Yosef Kara notes that it never takes this meaning in Tanakh, but rather refers to justice or righteousness. [It is, thus, often paired with the word "משפט".]32
  • צדיק – In Rabbinic sources the word צדיק often refers to one who is extraordinarily righteous.  In Tanakh, though, it is possible that the word simply means innocent or just,33 but not exceptionally so.34 The difference might affect one's understanding of several verses. 
    • Was Noach saved because he was extremely virtuous, or was he simply the only upright, innocent individual of the time?
    • Was Avraham asking that Hashem not destroy the righteous of Sedom, or only to not collectively punish the innocent?35 For discussion, see Avraham's Prayer for Sedom.
  • רוב – In contrast to Mishnaic and modern Hebrew where "רוב" means "most" or a "majority",36 in Tanakh the word consistently means abundance or many.37 
    • The change in meaning might have influenced Bavli Megillah's reading of Esther 10:3, "כִּי מׇרְדֳּכַי הַיְּהוּדִי מִשְׁנֶה לַמֶּלֶךְ אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ וְגָדוֹל לַיְּהוּדִים וְרָצוּי לְרֹב אֶחָיו".  The Bavli suggests that the verse is highlighting that only most were pleased with Mordechai, while others were not. Contrast Hoil Moshe who explains the verse to mean: "ורצוי לאחיו הרבים". See Mordechai's Legacy – ורצוי לרב אחיו for more.
  • שאול – Tanakh never speaks of distinct after-worlds for the righteous and wicked, and instead uses one term, "שאול", to refer to the place to which all the dead go,38 being synonymous with either death itself, a grave or perhaps the "underworld".39  By Mishnaic times, a distinction between an afterworld for the righteous (גן עדן) and wicked (גיהנום) already exists and the term "שאול" comes to refer to גיהנום.‎40
  • תשובה – Though in Tanakh one can "return to Hashem"41 or "turn away from Hashem"42 the noun form "תשובה" is never used in this context. It, instead, refers to either a physical return from one place to another,43 a reply,44 or the turn of the year.45 In Rabbinic Hebrew, in contrast, the noun form is often used to refer to a spiritual return46 (repentance) and phrases like "לַעֲשׁוֹת תְּשׁוּבָה", "בעל תשובה" or "לחזור בתשובה" appear.

Biblical vs. Modern Hebrew

  • נִין וָנֶכֶד‎‎47‎‎‎‎‎ – This pair of words appears three times in Tanakh,48 always in this order.  As such, in context, the terms would appear to mean child and grandchild respectively,49 or perhaps refer more generally to descendants (with no differentiation between the terms).50 Grandchildren and great-grandchildren are instead referred to as "שלש" and "רבע" (the third and fourth generations).‎51  In Modern Hebrew, in contrast, נין and נכד no longer take on the general connotation of "descendant", and the chronological order is reversed and moved down a generation, with נכד referring to a grandson and נין referring to a great-grandson.