Dictionary:Changing Meanings/0

Lexical: Changing Meanings

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Within the Biblical Period

There are many words whose meaning might have changed from one period within Tanakh to another:

• בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל – In most of Sefer Bereshit¹ and the opening verses of Sefer Shemot² the term  refers to the sons of Yaakov, whereas afterwards it refers to the nation of Israel.  The turning point might be Shemot 1:9, which uniquely states "עַם בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל",‎³ perhaps to clarify that the people have become a nation.⁴  There are several cases in which the meaning of the term is ambiguous:
• Bereshit 32:33 "לֹא יֹאכְלוּ בְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל אֶת גִּיד הַנָּשֶׁה" – See the debate in Bavli Chulin 100b whether this refers to something Yaakov's sons accepted upon themselves or whether this was a prohibition first commanded to the nation at at Sinai and placed in Sefer Bereshit to provide the reasoning.⁵
• Bereshit 36:30
• שבת
• חדש – In Torah the word refers to a month, while in Neviim it also takes on the meaning of "Rosh Chodesh", the first of the month.⁶
• חתן

Biblical vs. Rabbinic Hebrew

• אמה – In Tanakh, the word אמה means either maidservant (when spelled without a dagesh) or a unit of measure (when spelled with a dagesh). In Rabbinic Hebrew, it may be used to refer also to the forearm itself.
• See the dispute in Bavli SotahSotah 12bAbout the Bavli regarding the meaning of the phrase "וַתִּשְׁלַח אֶת אֲמָתָהּ וַתִּקָּחֶהָ" in Shemot 2:5, where one opinion suggests that the daughter of Paroh extended her arm, rather than sending her servant, to retrieve Moshe. Ibn Ezra Shemot First Commentary 2:5About R. Avraham ibn Ezrarejects this possibility noting both the missing dagesh⁷ and the fact that this usage is not found in Tanakh: "אמה מדה היא, כי הזרוע לא תקרא אמה".‎⁸
• בית - In Tanakh, this root generally refers to either a physical house⁹ or receptacle,¹⁰ or a family or household.¹¹ In Rabbinic Hebrew it is also understood more narrowly to refer specifically to a wife.¹²
• See Sifra Vayikra 16:32 and Mishna Yoma 1:1Yoma 1:1About the Mishna who adopt this later meaning to Vayikra 16, explaining, "וְכִפֶּר בַּעֲדוֹ וּבְעַד בֵּיתוֹ" to mean "and he will atone for himself and his wife".
• See also Lekach TovShemot 1:1Esther 4:14About R. Toviah b. Eliezer and ChizkuniShemot 1:1Shemot 22:2About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach on Shemot 1:1 who understand the phrase  "אִישׁ וּבֵיתוֹ בָּאוּ" there also to refer to Yaakov's sons and their wives. See, though, Ibn EzraShemot Second Commentary 1:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra who argues against this reading, noting: "אין בית בכל המקרא אשה".
• גּוֹי – Though the Sages use this word to refer to a non-Jew,¹³ in Tanakh it simply means nation, and can even refer to the Nation of Israel.¹⁴ In his Sefer HaShorashim, RadakSefer HaShorashimAbout R. David Kimchi attempts to explain the change in usage, suggesting that when the Sages wanted to identify a person as a non-Israelite but did not know his nationality, they would refer to him as simply "גוי", so as to say that he was from a different nation.
• דָּמִֽים – In Tanakh this word is related to blood /life whereas in Mishnaic Hebrew it also takes the meaning of "money".¹⁵ 
• The later usage might have influenced the interpretation of RashbamShemot 22:1About R. Shemuel b. Meir and ChizkuniShemot 22:2About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach to Shemot 22:1-2 who understand the phrases "אֵין/יש לוֹ דָּמִים" to mean "תשלומי דמים", perhaps combining the Biblical and Rabbinic usage of the term.  Cf. Ibn Janach who explains similarly, claiming that the verse in Shemot and the parallel phrase "אֵין לוֹ דָּם" in Bemidbar 35:27 both mean ransom.¹⁶
• ה״א הקריאה – Contrast Ibn Ezra on Bemidbar 15:15 who claims that there is no such thing as a "ה״א לקריאה" in Biblical Hebrew¹⁷ with Ibn Balaam who suggests that though rare, it does exist.   As examples he points to Bemidbar 15:15, Yirmeyahu 2:31, Mikhah 2:7 and Shir HaShirim 8:13.
  
• חותן/חותנת and חם/חמות – Biblical Hebrew distinguishes between a father-in-law on the husband and wife's side, using distinct terms for each.  The wife's father is referred to as a חותן,‎¹⁸ while the husband's father is referred to as a חם.‎¹⁹ Rabbinic Hebrew, in contrast, does not preserve the distinction and uses the terms חם and חמות to refer also to the parents of the wife.²⁰  For further discussion, see חֹתֵן / חֹתֶנֶת.
• כל – In Biblical Hebrew the word "" can mean either all or "most".
• מלאך – In Biblical Hebrew "מַלְאָךְ" refers to any type of messenger,²¹ not specifically an angel. Divine messengers are singled out by the terms "מַלְאַךְ אֱלֹהִים" or "'מַלְאַךְ ה".‎²²  In Rabbinic Hebrew, in contrast, "מַלְאָךְ" takes on the much more specific connotation of "angel". It is possible that the change is usage is related to the increasing prevalence of the word "שליח". This synonym never appears in Tanakh, but by Mishnaic times it is widespread, becoming the preferred word to express a human messenger, allowing for a narrower definition of "מלאך". Tanakh's broader definition of the word allows for ambiguity and in several cases, commentators debate whether an angel or human messenger is referred to. 
• See the discussion in Avraham's Guests – Angels or Men regarding the identity of the "מלאכים" / "אנשים" in Bereshit 18-19.
• See also Ralbag regarding the "מלאך" who appeared to Hagar in both Bereshit 16 and 21, those who meet Yaakov in Bereshit 32:2, and those that appeared to Gidon and to Manoach and many others.  In each case Ralbag suggests that the verse refers to a prophet of Hashem.²³
• מס – Hoil MosheShemot 1:11Bemidbar 31:28About R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi points out that "מס" in Tanakh refers to a labor tax rather than a monetary one,²⁴ noting that the Biblical term for a monetary tribute is מנחה  or מכס. 
• This relates to a dispute among commentators regarding how to understand the role of the "tax officers" mentioned in Shemot 1:11. Though many assume this refers to those who oversaw the forced labor, RalbagShemot Beur HaMilot 1:11About R. Levi b. Gershom suggests it refers to collection of a fiscal payment.  Ralbag opines that only those who could not afford the monetary fine were forced to labor for Paroh. See discussion in Who was Enslaved in Egypt.
• מקום – Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 28:11Esther First Commentary IntroductionAbout R. Avraham ibn Ezra notes that in Tanakh, the word "מקום" never refers to Hashem and always connotes a location.  It is only the Sages who use the term to refer also to Hashem due to his omnipresence.²⁵
• This leads Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 28:11About R. Avraham ibn Ezra to reject the Midrashic interpretation²⁶ that the phrase "וַיִּפְגַּע בַּמָּקוֹם" in Bereshit 28:11 means that Yaakov prayed to Hashem.
• Ibn EzraEsther First Commentary IntroductionAbout R. Avraham ibn Ezra similarly objects to those who explain²⁷ that Esther 4:14, "רֶוַח וְהַצָּלָה יַעֲמוֹד לַיְּהוּדִים מִמָּקוֹם אַחֵר", refers to Hashem's salvation
• עולם – Ibn EzraKohelet 3:11Tehillim Second Commentary 66:7About R. Avraham ibn Ezra notes that throughout Tanakh the word "עוֹלָם" is a marker of time, connoting a long duration or eternity. It is only in Rabbinic sources that the word takes on the extra meaning of "world".²⁸ [In Tanakh, the word used to describe the world is "תֵּבֵל".]
• As such, he claims that when explaining verses which can sustain both meanings (see Tehillim 66:7, Tehillim 89:3, Mishlei 10:24-25 and Kohelet 3:11)²⁹ the prevalent meaning of "eternity" should be adopted.
• עַם הָאָרֶץ – In Rabbinic Hebrew this term refers to someone who does not have much Torah knowledge or is not careful in keeping the laws of purity or tithing.³⁰  In Tanakh, in contrast, it refers to those living in the land.³¹
• צדקה - Though, in Rabbinic sources, the word צדקה refers to charity and giving of alms, R"Y KaraDevarim 24:13-14About R. Yosef Kara notes that it never takes this meaning in Tanakh, but rather refers to justice or righteousness. [It is, thus, often paired with the word "משפט".]³²
• צדיק – In Rabbinic sources the word צדיק often refers to one who is extraordinarily righteous.  In Tanakh, though, it is possible that the word simply means innocent or just,³³ but not exceptionally so.³⁴ The difference might affect one's understanding of several verses. 
• Was Noach saved because he was extremely virtuous, or was he simply the only upright, innocent individual of the time?
• Was Avraham asking that Hashem not destroy the righteous of Sedom, or only to not collectively punish the innocent?³⁵ For discussion, see Avraham's Prayer for Sedom.
• רוב – In contrast to Mishnaic and modern Hebrew where "רוב" means "most" or a "majority",³⁶ in Tanakh the word consistently means abundance or many.³⁷ 
• The change in meaning might have influenced Bavli Megillah's reading of Esther 10:3, "כִּי מׇרְדֳּכַי הַיְּהוּדִי מִשְׁנֶה לַמֶּלֶךְ אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ וְגָדוֹל לַיְּהוּדִים וְרָצוּי לְרֹב אֶחָיו".  The Bavli suggests that the verse is highlighting that only most were pleased with Mordechai, while others were not. Contrast Hoil Moshe who explains the verse to mean: "ורצוי לאחיו הרבים". See Mordechai's Legacy – ורצוי לרב אחיו for more.
• שאול – Tanakh never speaks of distinct after-worlds for the righteous and wicked, and instead uses one term, "שאול", to refer to the place to which all the dead go,³⁸ being synonymous with either death itself, a grave or perhaps the "underworld".³⁹  By Mishnaic times, a distinction between an afterworld for the righteous (גן עדן) and wicked (גיהנום) already exists and the term "שאול" comes to refer to גיהנום.‎⁴⁰
• See Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 37:35About R. Avraham ibn Ezra on Bereshit 37:35 who argues on these grounds against the Vulgate's translation of the verse which defines "שאול" as "hell".
• תשובה – Though in Tanakh one can "return to Hashem"⁴¹ or "turn away from Hashem"⁴² the noun form "תשובה" is never used in this context. It, instead, refers to either a physical return from one place to another,⁴³ a reply,⁴⁴ or the turn of the year.⁴⁵ In Rabbinic Hebrew, in contrast, the noun form is often used to refer to a spiritual return⁴⁶ (repentance) and phrases like "לַעֲשׁוֹת תְּשׁוּבָה", "בעל תשובה" or "לחזור בתשובה" appear.
• –

Biblical vs. Modern Hebrew

• בירה – Though today, "בירה" is used to refers to a capital city, in Biblical Hebrew the word means palace or fortress, related to the Akkadian "birtu" or Persian "baru", meaning fortress. the later usage has influenced many to understand the term "שושן הבירה" throughout Megillat Esther to mean "Shushan, the capital city". See, though, Ibn Ezra and R. Bachya in his wake, who point out that a distinction should be made between שושן or העיר שושן, which do rfer to a city and
• נִין וָנֶכֶד‎‎⁴⁷‎‎‎‎‎ – This pair of words appears three times in Tanakh,⁴⁸ always in this order.  As such, in context, the terms would appear to mean child and grandchild respectively,⁴⁹ or perhaps refer more generally to descendants (with no differentiation between the terms).⁵⁰ Grandchildren and great-grandchildren are instead referred to as "שלש" and "רבע" (the third and fourth generations).‎⁵¹  In Modern Hebrew, in contrast, נין and נכד no longer take on the general connotation of "descendant", and the chronological order is reversed and moved down a generation, with נכד referring to a grandson and נין referring to a great-grandson.

¹ See Bereshit 42:5, 45:2 and 46:5. In several other verses () the meaning of the term is ambiguous.  See discussion below.

² The phrase "בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל" in Shemot 1:1 clearly refers to the sons of Yaakov but verse 7 is ambiguous and could refer either to Yaakov's sons or to the entire Israelite nation. This depends on whether the verse is still part of the opening summary of Sefer Bereshit (cf. Bereshit 47:27) or is referring to events after the brothers' death.

³ This is the only place in Tanakh in which this exact term is used and there are only two other places in Tanakh (Shemot 3:10, 7:4) where Hashem uses a similar term, "עַמִּי בְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל".

⁴ See R. Hirsch on Shemot 1:1 and 9 who implies this.

⁵ Compare also R"Y Bekhor Shor, Radak and Ralbag's reading of the verse.

⁶ See, for instance, Shemuel I 20:5, Melakhim II 4:23, Yeshayahu 1:13, Yeshayahu 66:23, Yechezkel 45:17, Amos 8:5, and Tehillim 81:4.  The phrase "יוֹם הַחֹדֶשׁ" also refers to Rosh Chodesh and appears 4 times in Tanakh, once in Shemot 40:2, where it is accompanied by the clarification, "בְּאֶחָד לַחֹדֶשׁ", and in Shemuel I 20:34, Yechezkel 46:1 and 46:6.

⁷ Others, such as Rashi and R"Y Bekhor Shor, note this as well.

⁸ ShadalShemot 2:5About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto makes the same point, but suggests one possible exception, the description of the size of Og's bed in Devarim 3:11, "עַרְשׂוֹ עֶרֶשׂ בַּרְזֶל הֲלֹה הִוא בְּרַבַּת בְּנֵי עַמּוֹן תֵּשַׁע אַמּוֹת אׇרְכָּהּ וְאַרְבַּע אַמּוֹת רׇחְבָּהּ בְּאַמַּת אִישׁ". He notes, though, that even in this verse the phrase "אַמַּת אִישׁ" might refer to the measurement rather than an actual arm.

⁹ See, for example, Bereshit 12:15, 19:2, 24:23 or 33:17.

¹⁰ See , for instance, Shemot 25:27, 26:29, Melakhim I 18:32, Nechemyah 2:3.

¹¹ See, for example, Bereshit 7:1, 35:2 or 36:6.

¹² See, for example, Bavli Shabbat 118b.

¹³ See NMekhilta deRabbi Yishmael 12:16, 12:43, Mishna A"Z 2:6, 4:8, tosefta berahot 6:18

¹⁴ See, for instance, Bereshit 18:18, Bereshit 46:3, Devarim 26:5 or Yehoshua 4:1.  See also the debate in Sifre Devarim 32:28 regarding Devarim 32:28.  ShadalDevarim 32:43About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto goes further to suggest that even the plural form "גויים" in Devarim 32:43 might refer to the Nation of Israel.

¹⁵ See, for instance,  Mishna Maaser Sheni 1:5, Mishna Bava Metzia 5:3 and 5:9, and Mishna Bava Batra 2:7.

¹⁶ He further claims that the phrase in Tehillim 72, "וְיֵיקַר דָּמָם בְּעֵינָיו" means not life but value or worth.

¹⁷ He writes, "כי לא ימצא בלשון הקדש, כי אם בלשון חכמים."

¹⁸ See, for example, Shofetim 19:4,7,9.  It is possible that the term might refer also to a brother-in-law (or even another relative) as the term relates to the individual who contracts the marriage. [See Ibn Janach.] This bears on the identity of "חֹתֵן מֹשֶׁה" who is mentioned in many verses, but with reference to different individuals. See Yitro – Names and חֹתֵן / חֹתֶנֶת for elaboration.

¹⁹ See, for instance, see Bereshit 38:13,25 and Shemuel I 4:19,21.

²⁰ See, for example, see Mishna Demai 3:6Demai 2:2Demai 3:6About the Mishna, Pesachim 3:7Pesachim 3:7About the Mishna, Yevamot 1:1Yevamot 1:1About the Mishna, and Ketubot 1:5Ketubot 1:5About the Mishna.

²¹ See, for example, Bemidbar 20:14, Bemidbar 21:21, Devarim 2:26, or Yehoshua 6:25.

²² However, even in such cases, there is ambiguity as to whether an angel or human messenger  is referred to.

²³ Ralbag's reading is motivated by philosophical concerns, as he rejects the possibility that angels might be corporeal.  See R. Levi b. Gershom for more examples.

²⁴ The context of many verses would support this.  See, for instance, Shemot 1:11, Devarim 20:11, Yehoshua 16:10, Melakhim 1 5:27, and Melakhim I 9:16 which all explicitly speak of a labor force. See also Shofetim 1:28-35 or Yeshayahu 31:8 which speak of people being taken as "מס".  One possible exception to this usage in Esther 10:1.

²⁵ See, for example, Mishna Taanit 1:7, Bavli Shabbat 12b, Bavli Kiddushin 31b, or the many places which speak of "מצוות בין אדם למקום" such as Sifra Vayikra 16:30, Bavli Rosh HaShanah 17b, and Bavli Yoma 87a. 

²⁶ See Bavli BerakhotBerakhot 26bAbout the Bavli, and more explicitly,  Bereshit Rabbah68:9About Bereshit Rabbah and Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer35About Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer.  This understanding is found already in PhiloOn Dreams That They are God-Sent I 63-71About Philo as well. Others understand "וַיִּפְגַּע" to mean pray while still maintaining the definition "place" for the word "בַּמָּקוֹם", translating the verse as "And Yaakov prayed in the place".

²⁷ See Lekach TovShemot 1:1Esther 4:14About R. Toviah b. Eliezer.

²⁸ See, for instance, Mishna Berakhot 9:2, Mishna 15:1, Yeushalmi Berakhot 2:3.

²⁹ In each of these cases some commentators explain the word to mean "world" and others to mean "of long duration"

³⁰ See, for example, Mishna Demai 2:2, Mishna Horayot 3:8 or Mishna Tahorot 7:1.

³¹ In some verses it appears to refer to the masses and lower class while in others it appears to refer specifically to the higher echelons.

³² Thus, though there is a commandment to give a tithe to the poor, to "open one's hand" to lend to the poor and forgive their debts (Devarim 15:1-8), and to support those who have become poor (Vayikra 25:35), no where is this referred to as "giving tzedakah".

³³ See Ramban Bereshit 6:9, "כי הצדיק הוא הזכאי בדין".

³⁴ In several verses the word cannot easily be translated as an especially righteous figure.  See, for example, Avimelekh's words " הֲגוֹי גַּם צַדִּיק תַּהֲרֹג" in Bereshit 20:4, Devarim 25:1's warning to judges, "וְהִצְדִּיקוּ אֶת הַצַּדִּיק וְהִרְשִׁיעוּ אֶת הָרָשָׁע" and David's statement regarding Ishboshet, "אַף כִּי אֲנָשִׁים רְשָׁעִים הָרְגוּ אֶת אִישׁ צַדִּיק בְּבֵיתוֹ" (Shemuel II 4:11).

³⁵ undefined

³⁶ See, for instance: Mishna Yevamot 12:2, "בגדול שהוא יכול להלוך בו או בקטן שהוא חופה את רוב רגלו חליצתה כשרה" and Mishna Ketubot 1:10, "אם רוב אנשי העיר משיאין לכהונה הרי זו תנשא לכהונה".

³⁷ For some of many examples, see Yeshayahu 1:11: "לָמָּה לִּי רֹב זִבְחֵיכֶם יֹאמַר י"י", Yirmeyahu 30:14: "מַכַּת אוֹיֵב הִכִּיתִיךְ מוּסַר אַכְזָרִי עַל רֹב עֲוֺנֵךְ עָצְמוּ חַטֹּאתָיִךְ", and in Esther 5:11: "וַיְסַפֵּר לָהֶם הָמָן אֶת כְּבוֹד עׇשְׁרוֹ וְרֹב בָּנָיו".

³⁸ Several verses speak of even the righteous heading to, being saved from, or hoping to be spared from "שְׁאוֹל". See Yaakov's lament in Bereshit 37:35, "אֵרֵד אֶל בְּנִי אָבֵל שְׁאֹלָה", David's prayer in Shemuel II 22:6, "חֶבְלֵי שְׁאוֹל סַבֻּנִי קִדְּמֻנִי מֹקְשֵׁי מָוֶת", Chizkiyahu's prayer in Yeshayahu 38:10, "אֲנִי אָמַרְתִּי בִּדְמִי יָמַי אֵלֵכָה בְּשַׁעֲרֵי שְׁאוֹל פֻּקַּדְתִּי יֶתֶר שְׁנוֹתָי" and Yonah's cry, "וַיַּעֲנֵנִי מִבֶּטֶן שְׁאוֹל"in Yonah 2:3.

³⁹ Sheol is consistently described as a place to which one is lowered.  See, for example, "ה' מֵמִית וּמְחַיֶּה מוֹרִיד שְׁאוֹל וַיָּעַל" ,"גַּם הֵם אִתּוֹ יָרְדוּ שְׁאוֹלָה" or "הַעְמֵק שְׁאָלָה אוֹ הַגְבֵּהַּ לְמָעְלָה".

⁴⁰ See, for example,  Mishna Sanhedrin 10:3Sanhedrin 10:3About the Mishna, Tosefta Sanhedrin 13:1Sanhedrin 13:1About the Tosefta and Bavli Eiruvin 19aEiruvin 19aAbout the Bavli.

⁴¹ For a few examples, see Devarim 4:30, Devarim 30:2 or Yirmeyahu 24:7.

⁴² See, for instance, Bemidbar 14:43 or Yehoshua 22:16.

⁴³ See, for example, Shemuel I 7:17

⁴⁴ See Iyyov 21:34.

⁴⁵ Shemuel II 11:1 or Melakhim I 20:22.

⁴⁶ For a few of many examples, see Mishna Yoma 8:8-9, Mishna Avot 4:11, or Tosefta Kiddushin 1:11.

⁴⁷ For a comprehensive discussion of the evolution of the terms, see Sh. Sharvit,  "הנין יהנכד - מן המקרא ללשון ימינו" in 'עיוני מקרא ופרשנות ח (Ramat Gan, 2008): 165-174.

⁴⁸ see Bereshit 21:23, Yeshayahu 14:22 and Iyyov 18:19.

⁴⁹ See, for instance, the translation of Onkelos or Targum Yonatan.

⁵⁰ See, for example, the Septuagint and R"Y Ibn Janach.

⁵¹ See Bereshit 50:23, Shemot 20:4, Shemot 34:7, and Devarim 5:8