Dictionary:Changing Meanings/0

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Lexical: Changing Meanings

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Within the Biblical Period

There are many words whose meaning might have changed from one period within Tanakh to another:

  • אבל – The meaning of this word has shifted over time, from meaning "indeed" or "verily" in most of Tanakh to "but" in later books such as Daniel, Ezra and Divrei HaYamim.
  • בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל – In most of Sefer Bereshit1 and the opening verses of Sefer Shemot2 the term  refers to the sons of Yaakov, whereas afterwards it refers to the nation of Israel.  The turning point might be Shemot 1:9, which uniquely states "עַם בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל",‎3 perhaps to clarify that the people have become a nation.4  There are several cases in which the meaning of the term is ambiguous:
    • Bereshit 32:33 "לֹא יֹאכְלוּ בְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל אֶת גִּיד הַנָּשֶׁה" – See the debate in Bavli Chulin 100b whether this refers to something Yaakov's sons accepted upon themselves or whether this was a prohibition first commanded to the nation at at Sinai and placed in Sefer Bereshit to provide the reasoning.5
    • Bereshit 36:30
  • שבת
  • חדש – In Torah the word refers to a month, while in Neviim it also takes on the meaning of "Rosh Chodesh", the first of the month.6
  • חתן

Biblical vs. Rabbinic Hebrew

  • אמה – In Tanakh, the word אמה means either maidservant (when spelled without a dagesh) or a unit of measure (when spelled with a dagesh). In Rabbinic Hebrew, it may be used to refer also to the forearm itself.
    • See the dispute in Bavli SotahSotah 12bAbout the Bavli regarding the meaning of the phrase "וַתִּשְׁלַח אֶת אֲמָתָהּ וַתִּקָּחֶהָ" in Shemot 2:5, where one opinion suggests that the daughter of Paroh extended her arm, rather than sending her servant, to retrieve Moshe.7 Ibn Ezra Shemot First Commentary 2:5About R. Avraham ibn Ezrarejects this possibility noting both the missing dagesh8 and the fact that this usage is not found in Tanakh: "אמה מדה היא, כי הזרוע לא תקרא אמה".‎9 
  • בית – In Tanakh, this root generally refers to either a physical house10 or receptacle,11 or a family or household.12 In Rabbinic Hebrew it is also understood more narrowly to refer specifically to a wife.13
  • גּוֹי – Though the Sages use this word to refer to a non-Jew,14 in Tanakh it simply means nation, and can even refer to the Nation of Israel.15 In his Sefer HaShorashim, RadakSefer HaShorashimAbout R. David Kimchi attempts to explain the change in usage, suggesting that when the Sages wanted to identify a person as a non-Israelite but did not know his nationality, they would refer to him as simply "גוי", so as to say that he was from a different nation.
  • דָּמִֽים – In Tanakh this word is related to blood or life whereas in Mishnaic Hebrew it also takes the meaning of "money".16 
  • ה״א הקריאה – Contrast Ibn EzraBemidbar 15:15Esther Second Commentary 1:2About R. Avraham ibn Ezra on Bemidbar 15:15 who claims that there is no such thing as a "ה״א לקריאה" in Biblical Hebrew17 with Ibn BalaamBemidbar 15:15About R. Yehuda ibn Balaam who suggests that though rare, it does exist.   As examples, Ibn Balaam points to Bemidbar 15:15, Yirmeyahu 2:31, Mikhah 2:7 and Shir HaShirim 8:13.
  • חותן/חותנת and חם/חמות – Biblical Hebrew distinguishes between a father-in-law on the husband and wife's side, using distinct terms for each.  The wife's father is referred to as a חותן,‎18 while the husband's father is referred to as a חם.‎19 Rabbinic Hebrew, in contrast, does not preserve the distinction and uses the terms חם and חמות to refer also to the parents of the wife.20  For further discussion, see חֹתֵן / חֹתֶנֶת.
  • כל – In Biblical Hebrew the word "" can mean either all or "most".
  • מלאך – In Biblical Hebrew "מַלְאָךְ" refers to any type of messenger,21 not specifically an angel. Divine messengers are singled out by the terms "מַלְאַךְ אֱלֹהִים" or "'מַלְאַךְ ה".‎22  In Rabbinic Hebrew, in contrast, "מַלְאָךְ" takes on the much more specific connotation of "angel".23 Tanakh's broader definition of the word allows for ambiguity and in several cases, commentators debate what type of messenger is referred to:
  • מס – Hoil MosheShemot 1:11Bemidbar 31:28About R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi points out that "מס" in Tanakh refers to a labor tax rather than a monetary one,25 noting that the Biblical term for a monetary tribute is מנחה  or מכס. 
    • This relates to a dispute among commentators regarding how to understand the role of the "tax officers" mentioned in Shemot 1:11. Though many assume this refers to those who oversaw the forced labor, RalbagShemot Beur HaMilot 1:11About R. Levi b. Gershom suggests it refers to collection of a fiscal payment (as per the later usage of the word).  Ralbag opines that only those who could not afford the monetary fine were forced to labor for Paroh. See discussion in Who was Enslaved in Egypt.
  • מקום – Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 28:11Esther First Commentary IntroductionAbout R. Avraham ibn Ezra notes that in Tanakh, the word "מקום" never refers to Hashem and always connotes a location.  It is only the Sages who use the term to refer also to Hashem due to his omnipresence.26
  • עולם – Ibn EzraKohelet 3:11Tehillim Second Commentary 66:7About R. Avraham ibn Ezra notes that throughout Tanakh the word "עוֹלָם" is a marker of time, connoting a long duration or eternity. It is only in Rabbinic sources that the word takes on the extra meaning of "world".29 [In Tanakh, the word used to describe the world is "תֵּבֵל".]
  • עַם הָאָרֶץ – In Rabbinic Hebrew this term refers to an individual who does not have much Torah knowledge or is not careful in keeping the laws of purity or tithing.31  In Tanakh, in contrast, the term does not have a derogatory meaning and refers to a group rather than an individual, speaking of those living in the land. It is debated whether the term refers to the poorer masses or specifically to the higher classes, or if it is more general in nature.32
  • צדקה - Though, in Rabbinic sources, the word צדקה refers to charity and giving of alms, R"Y KaraDevarim 24:13-14About R. Yosef Kara notes that it never takes this meaning in Tanakh, but rather refers to justice or righteousness. [It is, thus, often paired with the word "משפט".]33
  • צדיק – In Rabbinic sources the word צדיק often refers to one who is extraordinarily righteous.  In Tanakh, though, it is possible that the word simply means innocent or just, but not exceptionally so.34 The difference might affect one's understanding of several verses. 
  • רוב – In contrast to Mishnaic and modern Hebrew where "רוב" means "most" or a "majority",35 in Tanakh the word consistently means abundance or many.36 
  • שאול – Tanakh never speaks of distinct after-worlds for the righteous and wicked, and instead uses one term, "שאול", to refer to the place to which all the dead go,37 being synonymous with either death itself, a grave, or perhaps the "underworld".38  By Mishnaic times, a distinction between an afterworld for the righteous (גן עדן) and wicked (גיהנום) already exists and the term "שאול" comes to refer to the latter.‎39
  • שכר – See Hoil Moshe Bemidbar 28:7About R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazion Bemidbar 28:7 who suggests that the word "שכר" in Tanakh refers to a strong wine rather than an alcoholic beverage made of wheat.40
  • תורה – In Rabbinic Hebrew the word "תורה" refers to the Five Books of Chumash or a Torah scroll. In Tanakh, the term is more general, referring to a set of instructions, teaching or law. The difference in meaning might affect how commentators understand the several places in which there is a command to write or read " דִּבְרֵי / הַתּוֹרָה הַזֹּאת":
    • Ceremony at Mt. Eval – Commentators dispute what was written on the stones, the entire Torah, only the laws, the Decalogue, or the blessings and curses mentioned in the unit.
    • Writing / reading of the "Torah" in Devarim 31 – Here, too, exegetes dispute both what Moshe wrote and what the king is obligated to read during hakhel: the enitre Torah, Sefer Devarim or specific teachings therein.
  • תשובה – Though in Tanakh one can "return to Hashem"41 or "turn away from Hashem"42 the noun form "תשובה" is never used in this context. It, instead, refers to either a physical return from one place to another,43 a reply,44 or the turn of the year.45 In Rabbinic Hebrew, in contrast, the noun form is often used to refer to a spiritual return46 (repentance) and phrases like "לַעֲשׁוֹת תְּשׁוּבָה", "בעל תשובה" or "לחזור בתשובה" appear.

Biblical vs. Modern Hebrew

  • בירה – Though today, "בירה" is used to refer to a capital city, in Biblical Hebrew the word generally means simply palace or fortress,47 related to the Akkadian "birtu".
  • דוד – Though today this can refer to an uncle on either the mother or father's side, see RashiYirmeyahu 32:12About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki50 who notes that in Tanakh, the term is reserved for a father's brother.51  [It also takes the meaning of beloved, as in Shir HaShirim]. 
    • See Yirmeyahu 32:12 where Rashi attempts to explain how Chanamel can be  referred to as both Yirmeyahu's cousin and uncle,52 rejecting the possibility raised by some that he was Yirmeyahu's cousin on his father side and his uncle on his mother's side, claiming, "לא מצינו בכל המקרא אח האם קרוי דוד".‎53  
    • See also RadakAmos 6:10About R. David Kimchi54 on Amos 6:10, who raises the possibility that the hapax legomenon "מסרף" in the phrase "דּוֹדוֹ וּמְסָרְפוֹ" might refer to an uncle on the mother's side (suggesting that the words דוד and מסרף are a pair).55
  • להתחתן – In Tanakh, in contrast to modern Hebrew, the parties who are "מתחתן" are the חֹתֵן (father56 of the bride) and the חָתָן (son-in-law)57 or the חֹתֵן (father of the bride) and the father of the groom,58 not the husband and wife. The verb "להתחתן" is not used to describe the forming of the marital relationship between the bride and groom59 as it was the father of the bride and not the bride herself who was the active party in the marital contract. This betrays the nature of marriage in Tanakh as the formation of an alliance60 rather than a bonding of love.
  • ירא א-להים – Today, this phrase is used to refer to a person who is a believing, God-fearing Jew, and focuses on the person's relationship to Hashem.  In Tanakh, though, it might also be used in the context of interpersonal relations, referring to someone's moral or ethical conduct.61 ShadalShemot 1:15About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto suggests that the term might refer to anyone who fears even a false god, for someone who fears such a higher authority will have some sense of morality.  The difference in meaning might affect how one reads several stories:
    • The Midwives – As the midwives are said to have "feared God" (Shemot 1:17), whether one understand the phrase to refer to having belief in Hashem or having a sense of morality will influence whether one suggests that they were Egyptian or Hebrew. See Who are the Midwives.
    • Amalek - In speaking of Amalek's attack, Devarim 25:18 states, "וְאַתָּה עָיֵף וְיָגֵעַ וְלֹא יָרֵא אֱלֹהִים".  Commentators debate whether the description "יָרֵא אֱלֹהִים" refers to Amalek or Israel, and, if the former, whether it describes the Amalekites' lack of ethics or disregard for God. See Annihilating Amalek.
  •  מדבר – In modern Hebrew a "מדבר" is defined as an area with a hot, dry climate and less than 250 mm of precipitation a year. RadakYehoshua 8:15Yirmeyahu 12:12About R. David Kimchi62 points out that in Tanakh, in contrast, the term refers to grazing land, unfit for agriculture but well suited for shepherding.  He suggests that the word "מדבר" might relate to the root "דבר" meaning to lead (or shepherd).
    • The difference in meaning affects how one thinks about the forty years in the wilderness.  Did the nation trek through barren, arid land, with intense heat and almost no water,63 or were the conditions considerably better, with pasture for their livestock?64  See Life in the Wilderness.
  • נִין וָנֶכֶד‎‎65‎‎‎‎‎ – This pair of words appears three times in Tanakh,66 always in this order.  As such, in context, the terms would appear to mean child and grandchild respectively,67 or perhaps refer more generally to descendants (with no differentiation between the terms).68 In modern Hebrew, in contrast, נין and נכד no longer take on the general connotation of "descendant", and the chronological order is reversed and moved down a generation, with נכד referring to a grandson and נין referring to a great-grandson.69
  • נצל - The הפעיל form of this verb (הציל) has maintained the meaning of to save or deliver until today, but the meaning of the פיעל and התפעל forms might have changed over time:
    • The פיעל form appears in four places in Tanakh, but its meaning is ambiguous.  Based on the context, in three cases (Shemot 3:22, Shemot 12:35-36, and Divrei HaYamim II 20:25) the word appears to mean to strip or despoil,70 while in a fourth case it appears to mean to "save".  Both possibilities stand in contrast to the modern usage of "to exploit". See Reparations and Despoiling Egypt for how the different understandings might affect how one reads the command to borrow / ask for vessels from the Egyptians.
    • The התפעל form of "נצל" appears only once, in Shemot 33:6 where it appears to mean remove from one's self.71 Today, in contrast, the word means to apologize.  Yaakov Etzion72 notes that the connotation of the verb has changed over the years. In medieval times it was used in the context of defending one's self against others' arguments (rather than acknowledging guilt),73 and it meant to save one's self or cast off blame (thus, somewhat in keeping with the biblical usge of the term). Only in modern times does it refer to the taking responsibility for one's actions and expressing regret for them.
  • רגז – Today, this root relates to anger. See, though, RashbamBereshit 45:24Shemot 22:1Vayikra 16:10About R. Shemuel b. Meir who notes that in Tanakh it takes the meaning of "tremble" or "agitate",74 and is often paired with fear,75 not   anger.76
  • שופט – In modern Hebrew, a "שופט" serves solely in a judicial capacity.  In Biblical Hebrew, however, the verb "לשפט" might also refer to the execution of judgement, and the noun form has the broader connotation of "governor" or "savior" as well.
    • The difference in meaning might influence how one perceives the various "שופטים" of Sefer Shofetim. Were they religious leaders or simply warriors who took vengeance on Israel's enemies?  See Hoil Moshe on Shofetim 10:4
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