Historical Backdrop of Yeshayahu 1/2

Historical Backdrop of Yeshayahu 1

Exegetical Approaches

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Overview

Commentators disagree regarding the intended audience of this prophecy, with the generations of each of Uziyahu, Yotam, Achaz and Chizkiyahu, or even all four, being raised as possibilities.  As both the political and religious climate differed radically under these kings' reigns, commentators are led to contrasting understandings of both Yeshayahu's rebuke and the punishment he describes.  For example, while many suggest that the prophecy puts almost equal weight on sins against man and God, Shadal maintains that it relates only to interpersonal sins, allowing him to date the chapter to the reign of the God-fearing Chizkiyahu. Similarly, though many assume that the devastation described by Yeshayahu relates to the present, and thus to the reigns of Achaz or Chizkiyahu, R"E of Beaugency asserts that all is a warning for the future, as he prefers to date the prophecy to the reign of Uziyahu. 

Uziyahu's Reign

The prophecy was relayed during the reign of Uziyahu and relates to the sins of his era. Yeshayahu warned the people of the future devastation that was to befall their land if they did not change their ways.

Sources:R. Eliezer of BeaugencyYeshayahu 1:1Yeshayahu 1:5-10Yeshayahu 2:1About R. Eliezer of Beaugency

Chronology of Sefer Yeshayahu – R. Eliezer of Beaugency maintains that the Book of Yeshayahu is written in chronological order.¹ Since the heading of Chapter 6 reads, "בִּשְׁנַת מוֹת הַמֶּלֶךְ עֻזִּיָּהוּ", he assumes that all the previous chapters (including the first) refer to Uziyahu's reign. ²

Uziyahu's time period – Uziyahu is described as both a righteous and powerful king. 

• Spiritual status – Melakhim II 15:3-4 shares that Uziyahu "did as was right in the eyes of Hashem," excepting the continued use of private altars. Divrei HaYamim also shares that at the end of his life, he became arrogant and thought to usurp the position of the high priest, attempting to bring an incense offering. Despite the problematic nature of this episode,³ however, this was not an idolatrous act, and in fact confirms that Uziyahu worshiped Hashem rather than idols.
• Political status – Uziyahu's reign was marked by prosperity, military conquests, and expansion of the kingdom.  He further engaged in agricultural and building projects, fortifying the country. The text shares that: "וַיֵּצֵא שְׁמוֹ עַד לְמֵרָחוֹק כִּי הִפְלִיא לְהֵעָזֵר עַד כִּי חָזָק". 

Given these facts, at first glance, Yeshayahu's descriptions of a sinning nation and destroyed country would seem not to match the era at all.  [See how this approach deals with these issues in the following points.]

Interpersonal sins – Yeshayahu's description of a society which perverts justice, does not care for the unfortunate, and whose leaders are corrupt and dishonest, finds echoes in the prophecies of Amos. As the book of Amos is explicitly dated to the reign of Uziyahu, this suggests that despite the silence on the issue in Melakhim, the period was indeed marked by such societal ills. It is possible that the prosperity of the period broadened the gaps between the rich and poor and led to the mistreatment of the latter.

Sins against God – Given the description of Uziyahu as an upright king who worshiped Hashem, this position must explain the various verses in the chapter which suggest that the people of the era sinned against Hashem:

• "יָדַע שׁוֹר קֹנֵהוּ ... יִשְׂרָאֵל לֹא יָדַע... עָזְבוּ אֶת י"י" – Though these verses speak of "not recognizing and leaving God", they need not connote that the nation worshiped idolatry⁴ and might simply refer to their no longer obeying Hashem's laws in the interpersonal realm, as described above.⁵
• "לָמָּה לִּי רֹב זִבְחֵיכֶם" – R"E of Beaugency suggests that the people's sacrifices no longer found favor in God's eyes for two reasons: Throughout most of the year, they were offered on prohibited private altars (במות), rather than in the Mikdash.⁶ Moreover, even when people brought sacrifices to the Mikdash⁷ (on Shabbat, new moons, or holidays), they did so with the wrong motives, assuming that the offerings would atone for all their crimes, despite the fact that they continued to sin.
• "כִּי יֵבֹשׁוּ מֵאֵילִים אֲשֶׁר חֲמַדְתֶּם" – This position could suggest, as does Hoil MosheYeshayahu 1:28-31About R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi below, that this verse refers to sexual crimes committed under trees.  If so, there is no mention of idolatry anywhere in the chapter, fitting what is known of Uziyahu's reign from Sefer Melakhim.  R"E of Beaugency himself, however, maintains that the verse refers to the trees under which the people set up altars and Asheirot for idolatry. He might assume that despite Uziyahu's personal  worship of Hashem, the nation continued to worship other gods alongside Him.⁸

Description of destruction – Since Uziyahu's reign was filled with conquests rather than destruction, R. Eliezer of Beaugency reads the descriptions of desolation to refer either to the past or future, but not to Uziyahu's reign itself:

• "עַל מֶה תֻכּוּ עוֹד תּוֹסִיפוּ סָרָה" – Yeshayahu tells the nation that there seems to be no point in continuing to punish them in their land,⁹ with the hopes of them repenting, since they have been punished in this manner from the time of the Judges, to no effect. Thus, Yeshayahu asks "עַל מֶה תֻכּוּ עוֹד": why should Hashem continue smiting the people as he had done throughout Jewish history.
• Other descriptions of destruction – According to R"E of Beaugency, the rest of the descriptions of destruction and punishment, such as: ‎כׇּל רֹאשׁ לׇחֳלִי ,אַרְצְכֶם שְׁמָמָה, ‎ and וְנוֹתְרָה בַת צִיּוֹן כְּסֻכָּה בְכָרֶם, refer to the future, when Assyria was to exile the ten tribes, leaving their land barren, and when Sancheriv was to capture all the fortified cities of Yehuda, leaving Yerushalayim alone unscathed. Yeshayahu is warning the people of what will come if they do not change their ways.

This reading is somewhat difficult given the many terms which reflect the present tense. For example, the phrase "אַדְמַתְכֶם לְנֶגְדְּכֶם זָרִים אֹכְלִים אֹתָהּ" implies that those listening to he prophecy itself see the land being ravaged by foreigners. Similarly, the cry "לוּלֵי יְהֹוָה צְבָאוֹת הוֹתִיר לָנוּ שָׂרִיד" suggests that destruction has already been wrought. R"E of Beaugency might reply that Yeshayahu is speaking from the perspective of those living in the time of the punishment.

Description of consolation – R. Eliezer of Beaugency appears to read the verses of consolation and punishment of sinners at the end of the chapter as referring to the era of "אַחֲרִית הַיָּמִים" mentioned in the next chapter (2:2).

Ramifications: new portrait of an era – R"E of Beaugency recasts the image of Uziyahu's reign, suggesting that despite the righteous king, the nation continued to sin against their fellow man, and maybe even against Hashem, throughout it.

Achaz's Reign

Yeshayahu's words were directed at Achaz and his generation.  He decried their sins, and highlighted the resulting destruction that had been wrought on the land in the hopes of encouraging the people to change their ways.

Sources:Gesenius cited in ShadalYeshayahu 1:1About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto

Chronology of Sefer Yeshayahu – This approach maintains that the prophecies of Yeshayahu were not written in chronological order.  The book opens with the reign of Achaz, only to move back in time to the era of Uziyahu (Chapter 6), and then return once again to Achaz (Chapter 7).  It is not clear, however, why the prophet would want to organize his book in such a manner and why this prophecy was worthy of being the first of the book.

Achaz' time period – The reign of Achaz was a low point both spiritually and politically, making him a good candidate to be the recipient of Yeshayahu's words:

• Spiritual realm – Achaz followed the path of Israelite kings, worshiping idolatry and even passing his son through fire. Divrei HaYamim further describes how he closed the doors to the Beit HaMikdash, replacing the worship there with the building of altars to foreign gods throughout Yerushalayim.
• Political realm – During his reign, the kingdom was attacked by the combined forces of Aram and Israel, leaving the land devastated.  Later, Edomites and Philistine forces also infiltrated, capturing cities and taking Judeans captive.

Description of sins

• "יָדַע שׁוֹר קֹנֵהוּ ... יִשְׂרָאֵל לֹא יָדַע... עָזְבוּ אֶת י"י" – This approach would understand these verses to refer to the nation's turning their backs on Hashem in order to worship other gods.
• "כִּי יֵבֹשׁוּ מֵאֵילִים אֲשֶׁר חֲמַדְתֶּם" – These verses also speak of the people's idolatry, which was worshiped under trees and in gardens.  Indeed, Melakhim II 16:4 says of Achaz specifically: "וַיְזַבֵּחַ וַיְקַטֵּר בַּבָּמוֹת וְעַל הַגְּבָעוֹת וְתַחַת כׇּל עֵץ רַעֲנָן." Alternatively, one could suggest that they metaphorically speak of relying on foreign powers for aid rather than trusting in Hashem. If, so they refer to Achaz's turning to Assyria for aid against Aram and Israel.¹⁰
• Interpersonal sins – Despite the fact that neither Melakhim nor Divrei HaYamim speak of the nation sinning in this area, this position assumes that such crimes were rampant as well.  Shadal questions, however, that as Yeshayahu appears to focus more on these sins that those in the religious sphere, these seem to be the more egregious crimes of the era.  If so, it is strange that they are not mentioned at all in the other accounts of Achaz' reign. Conversely, given the extent of the idolatry during Achaz reign, if he was Yeshayahu's audience, one would have thought that more of the rebuke would focus on such foreign worship.

"לָמָּה לִּי רֹב זִבְחֵיכֶם" – This verse is somewhat difficult for this position as it assumes that the people were still serving Hashem in the Mikdash, while Divrei HaYamaim says of Achaz that he closed the Temple's doors, preventing worship there.¹¹ This approach might respond that the closing of the Mikdash occurred only at the end of Achaz' reign and Yeshayahu's prophecy was relayed earlier, when the nation was still engaged in syncretic worship of both Hashem and other gods.¹²

"שָׂבַעְתִּי עֹלוֹת אֵילִים" – It is possible that part of the reason that Hashem abhorred the nation's sacrifices was that Achaz had introduced a new altar, modeled after one in Aram, into the Mikdash. Thus, the people's sacrifices were problematic not only because they were accompanied by injustice and bloodshed, but also because they were being offered on a foreign altar.

Description of destruction – This position could read these verses in one of two ways:

• Yeshayahu is describing the situation in Achaz' own time:
• "עַל מֶה תֻכּוּ עוֹד תּוֹסִיפוּ סָרָה" – Yeshayahu asks the people why they would want to suffer more;  they have already been plagued by Aram and Israel until almost nothing of the nation was left whole.
• "אַרְצְכֶם שְׁמָמָה עָרֵיכֶם שְׂרֻפוֹת אֵשׁ" – These phrases aptly describe the devastation brought to Yehuda in the aftermath of the wars with Aram, Israel, Amon and the Philistines, when only Yerushalayim was left unharmed. As Chizkiyahu says of the era: ‎וַיְהִי קֶצֶף י"י עַל" יְהוּדָה וִירוּשָׁלָ‍ִם וַיִּתְּנֵם [לְזַעֲוָה] (לזועה) לְשַׁמָּה וְלִשְׁרֵקָה".‎¹³
• Alternatively, Yeshayahu is both pointing to the present destruction, and warning about the desolation to be brought by Sancheriv in the near future.  This would account for the combination of past, present and future tense verbs in Yeshayahu's speech. The prophecy would be similar to Yeshayahu's warnings to Achaz in Chapter 8: וְלָכֵן הִנֵּה אֲדֹנָי מַעֲלֶה עֲלֵיהֶם... אֶת מֶלֶךְ אַשּׁוּר... וְחָלַף בִּיהוּדָה שָׁטַף וְעָבַר עַד צַוָּאר יַגִּיעַ וְהָיָה מֻטּוֹת כְּנָפָיו מְלֹא רֹחַב אַרְצְךָ עִמָּנוּ אֵל.

Description of consolation

Chizkiyahu's Reign

Yeshayahu delivered this prophecy during the reign of Chizkiyahu.  This approach divides regarding both the specific period referred to and the sins being rebuked:

Before Chizkiyahu's Religious Reform

Yeshayahu rebuked the people about both interpersonal sins and idolatry soon after Chizkiyahu ascended the throne, and it was these words which sparked the king's religious reform.

Chronology of Sefer Yeshayahu – The book is achronological, as Chapter 6 is dated to the year in which Uziyahu died, while the first chapter speaks of the opening year of Chizkiyahu's reign. It is possible that this prophecy was chosen to open the book because it was such a  pivotal one, leading to a reformation throughout the nation.

Chizkiyahu's time period – Chizkiyahu inherited a kingdom that was mired in the idolatry introduced by Achaz, and physically devastated by the wars fought in his reign. According to Divrei HaYamim, however, already in the first year of his rule, the righteous Chizkiyahu tried to reverse the religious trend,  re-opening the doors of the Mikdash closed by his father and cleansing Yehuda of its idolatry. The verses do not share what prompted him to veer from his father's practices, but this approach assumes that it was Yeshayahu's rebuke of Chapter 1.

Description of sins

• Sins of idolatry – At this early point in Chizkiyahu's reign, the people were still idolatrous.  Thus, Hashem chastises them for forgetting and leaving Hashem (verses 3-4), and tells then that they will be punished for worshiping foreign gods in their gardens (29-30).
• Interpersonal sins – This approach assumes that interpersonal sins accompanied the people's idolatry and, thus, Yeshayahu rebuked them about this as well.  This might be supported by verses from Mikhah 3, which can be dated to Chizkiyahu's reign¹⁴ and describes leaders who pervert justice, judge via bribery, and "build the city with blood."

"לָמָּה לִּי רֹב זִבְחֵיכֶם" – These verses are particularly difficult for this approach, as they assume that the people were in fact visiting the Mikdash¹⁵ and offering sacrifices, while this position assumes that Yeshayahu was prophesying when the Mikdash was still closed to the people.  This position might explain, like R"E of Beaugency above, that Hashem is speaking of the sacrifices brought on private altars outside of the Mikdash,¹⁶ and that the people worshiped Hashem and other gods simultaneously (and perhaps in the same manner: on high places throughout the land). Indeed, Chizkiyahu's first deed in his reformation is to remove such private altars.

Description of destruction – This position would posit that the description of destruction refers to the current devastation of the country in the aftermath of the wars of Achaz' reign. Yeshayahu pointed out that the situation was caused by the people's sins, suggesting that if they repented the situation could change.

"וְאָשִׁיבָה שֹׁפְטַיִךְ כְּבָרִאשֹׁנָה וְיֹעֲצַיִךְ כְּבַתְּחִלָּה" – The change of leader could refer to Chizkiyahu himself, who was replacing the corrupt Achaz.¹⁷ This would match those who say¹⁸ that the prophecy of Yeshayahu 11, which similarly speaks of the institution of a righteous judge,¹⁹ also speaks of Chizkiyahu.

After Chizkiyahu's Religious Reform

After Chizkiyahu brought the nation back to Hashem, though they no longer worshiped idolatry, they continued to sin in the interpersonal sphere and it is about this which Yeshayahu prophesied.

Sources:ShadalYeshayahu 1 IntroductionYeshayahu 1:1Yeshayahu 1:2Yeshayahu 1:7Yeshayahu 1:27-29About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto, Hoil MosheYeshayahu 1:1Yeshayahu 1:28-31About R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi

Chronology of Sefer Yeshayahu – This approach assumes that the book is achronological. Shadal explains that though the first chapter is relayed only later, it nonetheless opens the book because the rebuke is such a central one and touches on major ethical issues. He adds that Chapter 1 might have been the first prophecy Yeshayahu received, even if it was not the first to be relayed to the nation.

Chizkiyahu's time period

• Spiritual state – Chizkiyahu is described as a righteous king who eradicated idolatry from the land. The verses in Melakhim and Divrei HaYamim do not speak about the nation's interpersonal behavior during the era, yet verses in Mikhah might suggest that it was filled with corrupt leaders. [See the above discussion regarding Mikhah 3.]
• Political state – Chizkiyahu began his reign after the land had been devastated by enemies in the time of his father, and saw further destruction during the invasion of Sancheriv of Assyria.  Yerushalayim itself, however, was saved.

Background to the prophecy

• According to Shadal the prophecy is aimed at the actions of one particular individual, Shevna, a corrupt leader who had filled the land with dishonest judges and spread immorality among the rich and elite. This Shevna is explicitly named and rebuked for his deeds in Yeshayahu 22, but not all commentators agree with Shadal that his crime was perversion of justice.
• Hoil Moshe, in contrast, does not specify any one problematic leader and assumes that the prophecy might be speaking about the general corruption rampant in Chizkiyahu's era.

Description of sin – Shadal assumes that the entire chapter speaks only of interpersonal sins, and makes no mention of idolatry at all, an apt description of Chizkiyahu's reign when the people worshiped Hashem but were depraved in the area of social justice.  This leads him to reread several verses which are taken by others to refer to idolatry:

• "וְהֵם פָּשְׁעוּ בִי...עָזְבוּ אֶת י"י " – Shadal claims that these phrases do not refer to forsaking Hashem for other gods, but rather to leaving Hashem's upright ways.²⁰  He points to Yeshayahu 59:13 as another example where the phrase "פָּשֹׁעַ בַּי"י" refers to interpersonal behavior, as the verse continues "דַּבֶּר עֹשֶׁק וְסָרָה".
• "כִּי יֵבֹשׁוּ מֵאֵילִים אֲשֶׁר חֲמַדְתֶּם"‎ (29-31) – According to Shadal, the trees and gardens mentioned are metaphors for Shevna and his compatriots whom the dishonest judges relied upon.²¹ Yeshayahu foretells that these judges will become ashamed of the "strong trees" that appointed them, and in whose shade they sat as they committed injustices and violence. Hoil Moshe, in contrast, suggests that the verses refer to sexual crimes that took place under trees.

"לָמָּה לִּי רֹב זִבְחֵיכֶם" – Shadal points to this verse as proof that the audience to whom Yeshayahu was speaking had not forsaken Hashem for other gods.  He claims that it was natural for the people, who had just been weaned off idolatry, to still hold onto some idolatrous beliefs, including the idea that gods could be bribed to ignore iniquities. Yeshayahu explains to the people that offerings which are accompanied by misdeeds are not acceptable to Hashem.

Description of destruction – Shadal assumes that the destruction refers to the present desolate state of the land, a result of the battles fought by Achaz. Shadal notes that Chizkiyahu himself describes the events of his father's reign by saying: "וְהִנֵּה נָפְלוּ אֲבוֹתֵינוּ בֶּחָרֶב וּבָנֵינוּ וּבְנוֹתֵינוּ וְנָשֵׁינוּ בַּשְּׁבִי עַל זֹאת".

"וְאָשִׁיבָה שֹׁפְטַיִךְ כְּבָרִאשֹׁנָה" – Shadal explains that these verses refer to the near future, when Shevna was to be dismissed and replaced by the righteous Elyakim b. Chilkiyahu (as described in Yeshayahu 22:20) who was to reinstate just judges.

"צִיּוֹן בְּמִשְׁפָּט תִּפָּדֶה וְשָׁבֶיהָ בִּצְדָקָה." – Shadal claims that "וְשָׁבֶיהָ" means "יושביה" (her inhabitants) rather than "those returning from exile".  Since he maintains that the prophecy has nothing to do with the exile of the ten tribes, the verse must be speaking of something else.²²

After the Exile of the Ten Tribes

Yeshayahu rebuked the people for both their sins of idolatry and their crimes against their fellow men, bemoaning that they had learned nothing from the exile of their brothers, the ten tribes.

Sources:R. Yosef KaraYeshayahu 1:5Yeshayahu 1:6-8Yeshayahu 1:9Yeshayahu 1:27About R. Yosef Kara²³

Chronology of Sefer Yeshayahu – R.Yosef Kara maintains that the book is achronological, as Yeshayahu's first prophecy was that recorded in Chapter 6, during the era of Uziyahu.²⁴ It is possible that this prophecy was nonetheless chosen to open the book because it speaks of the most catastrophic event of the period, the exile of the ten tribes. Yeshayahu turns to Yehudah to warn them to repent, lest they meet the same fate as their northern neighbors.

Chizkiyahu's time period – Chizkiyahu was a righteous leader who cleansed Yehuda of the idolatry introduced by his father. The era, however, was one of political turmoil. In the sixth year of his reign, the Northern Kingdom was exiled by Assyria, and in the fourteenth year, Yehuda itself was attacked and all its fortified cities, with the exception of Yerushalayim, were captured.

Description of sin – Considering that Chizkiyahu was a righteous king, this position must explain how the sins described by Yeshayahu fit his era. R"Y Kara apparently assumes²⁵ that though Chizkiyahu himself was righteous, his generation did not follow his lead, but rather continued in the idolatrous and corrupt ways set forth by Achaz.

"לָמָּה לִּי רֹב זִבְחֵיכֶם" – These verses attest to the fact that Chizkiyahu did manage to bring the people back to sacrificial worship of Hashem; however, this approach assumes that he did not lead them to simultaneously abandon their worship of foreign gods.  Thus, Hashem complains: "לֹא אוּכַל אָוֶן וַעֲצָרָה", that He has no desire for sacrifice and festive worship when they are accompanied by "אָוֶן" – idolatry.

Description of destruction – R"Y Kara reads each of the descriptions as referring to the present state of the country in the aftermath of the exile:

• "עַל מֶה תֻכּוּ עוֹד תּוֹסִיפוּ סָרָה" – R"Y Kara reads "תֻכּוּ" as if it were in the past tense.  Hashem questions Yehuda why they did not learn any lessons from His smiting and exiling of the ten tribes.
• "אַרְצְכֶם שְׁמָמָה... אַדְמַתְכֶם לְנֶגְדְּכֶם זָרִים אֹכְלִים אֹתָהּ " – R"Y Kara assumes this refers to the present desolation of the land caused by the exile.²⁶ He explains "לְנֶגְדְּכֶם" to mean: "לעיניכם" and that the prophet is saying that the land sitting in front of the people right now, has been eaten by foreigners. Shadal, however, questions why Yeshayahu would refer to the land of the ten tribes as "אַרְצְכֶם" if he is speaking to Yehuda.²⁷
• "וְנוֹתְרָה בַת צִיּוֹן כְּסֻכָּה בְכָרֶם" – R"Y Kara maintains that "וְנוֹתְרָה" is a past tense verb²⁸ and that Yeshayahu is pointing out that after the exile, Yehuda and Yerushalayim alone remained, like an abandoned hut in an empty vineyard. One could have alternatively suggested that Yeshayahu is speaking of the future conquests of Sancheriv, and warning the people that, if they do not change their ways, soon Yerushalayim will be the only remnant of Yehuda itself.

No mention of ten tribes – Shadal questions this approach, stating that if the chapter was really referring to the exile, such a pivotal event would have been mentioned explicitly by the prophet and not only alluded to.

"צִיּוֹן בְּמִשְׁפָּט תִּפָּדֶה וְשָׁבֶיהָ בִּצְדָקָה" – R. Yosef Kara asserts that these verses of consolation refer to the future, when those exiled were to return ("וְשָׁבֶיהָ").

Reigns of All Four Kings

Yeshayahu relayed this prophecy multiple times, during the reigns of each of Uziyahu, Yotam, Achaz, and Chizkiyahu, as it pertained to all of them.

Sources:perhaps RadakYeshayahu 1:2Yeshayahu 1:5Yeshayahu 1:8Yeshayahu 1:29About R. David Kimchi,²⁹ AbarbanelYeshayahu 1:1About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel

Chronology of Sefer Yeshayahu – Abarbanel suggests that this prophecy was chosen to open the book because its message was such a central and relevant one that Yeshayhau repeated it during the reign of each king during whose era he prophesied. Abarbanel also raises the possibility that this prophecy was actually the first one that Yeshayahu relayed.³⁰

"חֲזוֹן יְשַׁעְיָהוּ בֶן אָמוֹץ" – According to Abarbanel, it is possible that the heading in verse 1 is not actually a heading for the entire book, but only for this specific chapter.  This would explain both the singular form of the word "חֲזוֹן" and why Chapter 2 has a new opening, repeating: "הַדָּבָר אֲשֶׁר חָזָה יְשַׁעְיָהוּ בֶּן אָמוֹץ".

Main message – According to Abarbanel, Yeshayahu told each king of the upcoming destruction of the Northern Kingdom, warning them to change their ways so that Yehuda would not suffer the same fate as her brothers.

Description of sin – Shadal questions how the prophecy could possibly apply to all four kings, given that the sins of the people differed in each era.

• Abarbanel could answer that, throughout the period, at least a portion of the nation was both sinning on the interpersonal level and worshiping idolatry. Even under the reigns of righteous kings, many people might have been involved in syncretic worship of both Hashem and idols.³¹
• Alternatively, this approach could suggest that certain parts of the prophecy were only relevant to one era or another, and each generation picked up on the message that was most applicable to them.

Description of destruction – This approach reads the verses as referring to the state of the land after the exile of the ten tribes, or during the campaign of Sancheriv:

• "עַל מֶה תֻכּוּ... כׇּל רֹאשׁ לׇחֳלִי" – The prophet is asking why the nation, after they will be smitten by the exile of Israel, would want to continue sinning. Will it not be enough that the head (Israel) will be stricken, that the heart (Yehuda) should be faint as well?
• "אַרְצְכֶם שְׁמָמָה... אַדְמַתְכֶם לְנֶגְדְּכֶם זָרִים אֹכְלִים אֹתָהּ" – Abarbanel explains that the description sounds as if the destruction was already wrought even though it was yet to come, because that is how Yeshayahu saw it in his vision.  Though the verse refers to the land of the ten tribes, Yeshayahu refers to it as "your land" because the two kingdoms are composed of brothers, and both North and South were promised to the nation by Hashem.
• "נוֹתְרָה בַת צִיּוֹן... כְּעִיר נְצוּרָה" – Abarbanel suggests that this verse hints to the fact that Yerushalayim, too, was to be besieged.

Consolation – Abarbanel reads these verses as referring to the reign of Chizkiyahu:

• "אָשִׁיבָה שֹׁפְטַיִךְ כְּבָרִאשֹׁנָה" – According to Abarbanel this was to happen under the reign of Chizkiyahu, when the people returned to Hashem.
• "צִיּוֹן בְּמִשְׁפָּט תִּפָּדֶה וְשָׁבֶיהָ בִּצְדָקָה" – The repentance of the people (וְשָׁבֶיהָ) in the time of Chizkiyahu was to lead to their redemption (תִּפָּדֶה) and salvation from Sancheriv.
• "וְעֹזְבֵי י"י יִכְלוּ" – In contrast to the salvation of Yehuda, the sinners of the Northern Kingdom were destroyed and exiled.

Radak, in contrast, understands them to refer to the more distant future.  Yeshayahu foretells that in Messianic times justice will be restored, but already earlier, with the destruction of the Beit HaMikdash, idolatry will be eliminated as the people realize that their gods could not avert destruction.

¹ Chapters 1-5 were given during Uziyahu's reign. Chapter 6 relates to Yotam's reign (6:1 begins with Uziyahu's death: "בִּשְׁנַת מוֹת הַמֶּלֶךְ עֻזִּיָּהוּ"). Chapters 7-14:27  pertain to Achaz's reign (7:1 begins with Achaz: "בִּימֵי אָחָז בֶּן יוֹתָם בֶּן עֻזִּיָּהוּ"), and, finally, Chapters 14:28-end were relayed during Chizkiyahu's reign (14:28 tells of the death of Achaz: "בִּשְׁנַת מוֹת הַמֶּלֶךְ אָחָז").

² As Chapter 6 resembles an initiation prophecy, many readers assume that it (rather than the prophecy of Chapter 1) must be the first prophecy of the book. R. Eliezer of Beaugency suggests that a long time had passed between Yeshayahu's prophesying of Chapters 1-5 and Chapter 6, necessitating a new introductory type of vision.

³ He was punished with tzara'at.

⁴ See Shadal below who reads the verses in this manner.

⁵ R. Eliezer of Beaugency comments are somewhat general making it difficult to determine whether or not he understands the verses to refer to idolatry. He presents hashem as saying that though the nation should have recognized Him as their creator and benefactor, and therefore obeyed him, they have turned against Him and no longer serve him: "לא ידע טובתי לעבדני."  It is not clear if R"E of Beaugency is referring to the nation's idolatrous worship, or to more general disobedience.  As later in the commentary, he is explicit that they people were worshiping idolatry, either reading would be consistent with his overall understanding of the chapter. [See the discussion in the main body regarding how idol worship fits with the portrait of the era in Melakhim and Divrei HaYamim.]

⁶ This is testified to in Melakhim II 15:4, "רַק הַבָּמוֹת לֹא סָרוּ עוֹד הָעָם מְזַבְּחִים וּמְקַטְּרִים בַּבָּמוֹת"

⁷ R"E of Beaugency reads "כִּי תָבֹאוּ לֵרָאוֹת פָּנָי" as "[even] when you come to see my face [in the Mikdash]."

⁸ It is also possible that the nation turned to idolatry only after Uziyhau's sin and punishment; without the guidance of an upright leader, it was easy to revert to idolatrous ways. Alternatively, even if one maintains that the verse speaks of idolatry, one could suggest, like Radak, that these verses refer to the ultimate destruction of idolatry in the End of Days, and perhaps say nothing about the sins of this particular period.

⁹ This is contrast to the punishment of exile which Hashem is soon to bring instead.

¹⁰ Yeshayahu speaks of the people desiring their trees and gardens but in the end being disappointed by them as they become dry and shriveled.  This is a fitting metaphor for the hopes that Achaz had for Assyrian aid, only to find that they were of no help.

¹¹ See Divrei HaYamim II 28:24, "וַיְקַצֵּץ אֶת כְּלֵי בֵית הָאֱלֹהִים וַיִּסְגֹּר אֶת דַּלְתוֹת בֵּית י״י" and Divrei HaYamim II 29:7, "גַּם סָגְרוּ דַּלְתוֹת הָאוּלָם וַיְכַבּוּ אֶת הַנֵּרוֹת וּקְטֹרֶת לֹא הִקְטִירוּ וְעֹלָה לֹא הֶעֱלוּ בַקֹּדֶשׁ לֵאלֹהֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל."

¹² Since Melakhim II 16 presents Achaz as telling the priests to sacrifice on the new altar he had modeled after the one in Aram, it confirms that sacrifices were still being brought in the Mikdash during parts of his reign.

¹³ This, however, necessitates reading the word "וְנוֹתְרָה בַת צִיּוֹן כְּסֻכָּה בְכָרֶם" as being past rather than future tense.

¹⁴ The chapter itself is not dated, but it ends with the prophecy, "צִיּוֹן שָׂדֶה תֵחָרֵשׁ וִירוּשָׁלַיִם עִיִּים תִּהְיֶה וְהַר הַבַּיִת לְבָמוֹת יָעַר".  These very words are cited by the elders in Yirmeyahu 26:17-18 and dated there to the era of Chizkiyahu.  Moreover, the elders suggest that the prophecy led to the nation's repentance.

¹⁵ See Yeshayahu's words, "כִּי תָבֹאוּ לֵרָאוֹת פָּנָי".

¹⁶ Yeshayahu's language of "כִּי תָבֹאוּ לֵרָאוֹת פָּנָי" is still somewhat difficult and would have to be understood as coming to sacrifice to Hashem even if not in the Mikdash.

¹⁷ Cf.  Ibn EzraYeshayahu 1:1Yeshayahu 1:7-8Yeshayahu 1:26-28Yeshayahu 1:26About R. Avraham ibn Ezra who suggests that the corrupt officers refer to those in both the northern kingdom and those appointed by Achaz, while the new honest ones are those to be appointed by the righteous Chizkiyahu.

¹⁸ See R. Moshe ibn Chiquitilla, ShadalYeshayahu 11:1About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto, and Hoil MosheYeshayahu 11:1About R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi.

¹⁹ See the description of the leader in verses 4-5 there: "וְשָׁפַט בְּצֶדֶק דַּלִּים... וְהָיָה צֶדֶק אֵזוֹר מׇתְנָיו וְהָאֱמוּנָה אֵזוֹר חֲלָצָיו."

²⁰ Hoil Moshe similarly claims that these types of phrases can refer to immoral behavior rather than idolatry:  "ועזבי ה׳ – חוטא נגד המוסר"

²¹ He points to Yechezkel 31 and Yeshayahu 2:13 as other examples where leaders are figuratively referred to as strong trees.

²² RashiYeshayahu 1:27About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and Ibn EzraYeshayahu 1:26-28About R. Avraham ibn Ezra alternatively explain that "וְשָׁבֶיהָ" refers to those who had repented.

²³ Some manuscripts of RashiYeshayahu 1:1Yeshayahu 1:8About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki also date the prophecy to this period, with an added comment on verse 7 reading, "ונבואה זו נאמרה בימי חזקיהו אחר שגלו עשרת השבטים".  This, however, does not fit with Rashi's explanation of verse 8 (וְנוֹתְרָה בַת צִיּוֹן כְּסֻכָּה בְכָרֶם) which he claims refer to the future exile of the ten tribes.

²⁴ Though the chapter is dated to the year of Uziyahu's death, R. Kara assumes that the verse is metaphoric and really refers to the year in which Uziyahu was struck with tzara'at.

²⁵ He does not address the question explicitly.

²⁶ He explains "אַדְמַתְכֶם לְנֶגְדְּכֶם" to mean that the land, which they see right now, has been eaten by foreigners.

²⁷ He suggests that perhaps once there were no longer two competing kingdoms, the prophet could speak of them as one.

²⁸ He reads the "vav" of "וְנוֹתְרָה" not as a vav conversive (vav consecutive), according to which the verb would be in the future tense, but rather as a conjunctive, allowing him to translate the pharse "and Zion remained..."  However, the expected form for the conjunctive would have been "ובת ציון נותרה..."

²⁹ Radak does not address the question explicitly, but he does suggest that the general description of the sinning nation could correspond to each of the four kings. Nonetheless, no where in his commentary does he say that Yeshayahu repeated the prophecy multiple times.

³⁰ Abarbanel posits that though the prophecy of Chapter 6 sounds like an initiation prophecy (as Hashem asks, "אֶת מִי אֶשְׁלַח" and Yeshayahu responds, "הִנְנִי שְׁלָחֵנִי"), it is only formulated in that manner due to the heaviness of the mission described therein.

³¹ Radak points out that even the kings who were ostensibly upright stumbled. Thus, regarding both Uziyahu and Chiziyahu, Divrei HaYamim shares: "גָּבַהּ לִבּוֹ". Similarly, though Yotam was righteous, his generation was not: "וְעוֹד הָעָם מַשְׁחִיתִים."