Literary:Indicators of Achronology/0
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Indicators of Achronology
Explicit Achronology
Dates
Achronology is most explicit when an event is dated1 and appears out of order. Examples follow:
- Shemot 16:35 – Shemot 16 is dated to the first year of the Wilderness period, yet mentions the eating of manna throughout the forty years of the nation's journey to Canaan (Shemot 16:32-35).
- Bemidbar 1-9 – Bemidbar 1 is dated to the second month of the second year in the Wilderness, yet Bemidbar 7and 9 explicitly backtrack to the first month.2
- Sefer Yirmeyahu – The prophecies and events of Sefer Yirmeyahu are also explicitly achronological, switching back and forth between the reigns of Yehoyakim and Tzidekyahu.3
Ages
Sometimes, even though no calendar date is given in the text, the timing of an event can be determined through knowledge of people's relative ages as provided by genealogy lists, time markers,4 or birth and death notices. Calculations might then point to achronological ordering. For example:
- Terach's death – Terach's death is mentioned at the end of Bereshit 11, before we read of Avraham's departure from Charan, even though one can calculate that he first passed away 60 years after Avraham's departure.5
- Avraham's death – Avraham's death is mentioned in Bereshit 25:7, before the text shares the story of Yaakov and Esav's birth, even though one can calculate that he only passed away 15 years afterwards.6
- Yitzchak's death – Yitzchak's death is recorded in Bereshit 35:28, before the stories of Yosef and his brothers are discussed, yet one can determine that he first passed away 12 years after the sale.7
Geographical Data
At times, geographical data can point to achronology:
- Laws of sacrifices in Vayikra 7 – R. D"Z Hoffmann notes that Vayikra 7 closes by stating that the laws just stated were given on Mt. Sinai, while Vayikra 1 opens by stating that its laws were relayed in the Ohel Moed. Given that once the Tabernacle was constructed, laws were issued from there, the laws given on the mountain were presumably relayed beforehand, suggesting that the chapters are achronological.
- Vayikra 25-27 – These chapters, too, were said to have been commanded on Mount Sinai,8 suggesting that they were relayed before the Tabernacle was built, and thus before most of the rest of the laws of Sefer Vayikra (which are relayed from the Tent of Meeting).
Headings
"וַיְהִי בָּעֵת הַהִוא" – General Approaches
Variations of the phrase "וַיְהִי בָּעֵת הַהִוא" (and it was at that time)9 appear 18 times in Torah (with 15 appearing in Moshe's speeches in Sefer Devarim) and 49 times in the rest of Tanakh. What does the heading imply about the timing of the story that follows it; does it occur simultaneously with the previous story, right after it, or at some previous point? When is "at that time"?
- Consecutive stories – Some10 suggest that the phrase means that the story about to be narrated chronologically follows that which preceded it. Why, though, would this be necessary to share?
- Connotes immediacy – Cassuto suggests that the phrase serves to highlight that the story about to be told occurred immediately after the preceding one, "בעת ההיא עצמו".
- Highlights causal relationship – Netziv claims that the words highlight a "cause and effect" relationship between the two stories.
- Marks appendices – S. Loewinstam11 suggests that, at least in Sefer Devarim, the words serve to mark off sections that act as appendices or tangents to the main story line.
- Marker of achronology – Others suggest that the phrase is employed specifically when two stories do not directly follow one another:
- Undefined time – R. Avraham b. HaRambam and R. Yosef ibn Kaspi claim that "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" refers to an undefined time, and thus often indicates that the narrative which is about to be told does not directly follow the events which were just recounted, but might have occurred at some point before them.
- Overlapping – Ralbag12 suggests that the words indicate that two consecutive stories overlapped in time, with the second story happening literally "at that time" - during the preceding events.
- Resume previous narrative – At times, the phrase appears to function as an indicator that the text is resuming a narrative that had been interrupted with a parenthetical or achronological statement. In other words, it refers back to the events right before whatever had just been recounted.
"וַיְהִי בָּעֵת הַהִוא" – Specific Cases
Following are many examples where the phrase "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" appears and commentators take one of the above approaches in understanding what it connotes:
- Bereshit 21:22 – The account of the covenant of Avimelekh with Avraham is recorded after the story of Yitzchak's banishment:
- R. Hirsch assumes that the stories are consecutive and that it was specifically the banishment of Yishmael that prompted Avimelekh to ally himself with Avraham. The phrase "וַיְהִי בָּעֵת הַהִוא" serves to connect the two adjacent stories both chronologically and thematically, highlighting how one event led to the next.
- R. Saadia Gaon, R"Y Kara, and Rashbam, however, claim that the covenant was made before the expulsion,13 right after Yitzchak's birth. It was the miraculous nature of the birth that prompted Avimelekh to approach Avraham. The story opens with the words "וַיְהִי בָּעֵת הַהִוא" to hint to the achronology.
- Bereshit 38:1-3 – The story of Yehuda and Tamar follows that of the sale of Yosef.
- R"Y Kara, R"Y Bekhor Shor and Radak,14 following Chazal, assert that the stories are chronological and follow one another. Yehuda separated from his brothers right after and as a result of the sale. The opening "וַיְהִי בָּעֵת הַהִוא" comes to highlight this cause and effect.15
- Ibn Ezra, Ralbag and Shadal, however, claim that the two stories overlap, with the beginning of Chapter 38 occurring before the sale and the other events of the chapter happening later. The heading "וַיְהִי בָּעֵת הַהִוא" serves as an indicator of achronology.
- Devarim 1:9 – Moshe's opens his speech in Devarim 1 with Hashem's command to leave Mt. Sinai during the second year in the wilderness. He then recounts the story of the appointment of judges.
- R"Y Bekhor Shor, Ramban and R. D"Z Hoffmann all assert that Moshe is backtracking to speak of events of the first year and that the story refers to the appointment of judges advised by Yitro in Shemot 18. The phrase "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" serves to clue the reader into the fact that this event occurred before the preceding story.
- Others, however, claim that Moshe is speaking of the appointment of officers described in Bemidbar 11, which took place in the second year. If so, "וַיְהִי בָּעֵת הַהִוא" refers to the time period mentioned right beforehand in Devarim and indicates that the two stories are consecutive events. See Appointing Moshe's Assistants for elaboration.
- Devarim 3:23 – Devarim 3 speaks of the conquest of Og, Moshe's encouragement to Yehoshua regarding future conquests, and then Moshe's plea to enter the land. Both of the last two events are introduced with the phrase "בָּעֵת הַהִוא".
- Rashi, Ibn Ezra and Ramban16 assume that the two events happened in the reverse order. Moshe pleaded with Hashem after the conquests of Sichon and Og,17 and only afterwards did he encourage Yehoshua.18 The headings hint that the events are not being recorded in the order they occurred.
- Devarim 5:4-5 – After telling the nation that Hashem spoke to them "face to face" at Mt. Sinai, Moshe continues, "אָנֹכִי עֹמֵד בֵּין י״י וּבֵינֵיכֶם בָּעֵת הַהִוא לְהַגִּיד לָכֶם אֶת דְּבַר י״י".
- According to many commentators, Moshe is referring to his mediating role during Revelation itself. The words "בָּעֵת הַהִוא", then, connotes simultaneity (the events of verses 4-5 overlapped).
- Ibn Ezra, claims instead that "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" refers to the period after revelation; from then on Moshe acted as an intermediary.
- Finally, Ramban (in his first explanation) suggests that this might refer to the three day period before revelation, when Moshe acted as a go-between to relay Hashem's commands to the nation. The words "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" indicate achronology. For elaboration on these various readings and their implications for understanding Revelation, see The Decalogue: Direct From Hashem or Via Moshe?
- Devarim 10:8 – Devarim 10:8 speaks of the selection of the Levites which occurred in the second year. Yet, the immediately preceding verses speak of events of the fortieth year.
- The Rambam, thus, points to this verse as evidence that the phrase "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" need not introduce an event which directly follows the preceding narrative, and that it in fact might imply the exact opposite.
- The Netziv, disagrees, suggesting that the events are chronological and "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" implies continuity. This leads him to suggest that the Devarim 10:8 refers not to the initial selection of the tribe, but to their being chosen, in the fortieth year to act as teachers of Torah.
- Yehoshua 5:1-2 - Yehoshua 5 opens with the narrator announcing that the miracle of the splitting of the Jordan induced fear in the hearts of the Canaanites. The next verse shares that "at that time" Yehoshua was commanded to circumcise the nation. Since Yehoshua 5:1 is parenthetical, momentarily shifting the reader's focus from the Israelites (the subject of chapter 4) to the Canaanites, the text employs the phrase "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" to bring the reader back to the events happening in the Israelite camp.
- Yehoshua 6:26 – Yehoshua 6:24 speaks of the burning of Yericho and sanctifying of its booty to Hashem. The following verse shifts focus, sharing how Rachav and her family became a part of Israel "until this day". Verse 26 then states that "at that time" Yehoshua cursed all those who would rebuild the city. Due to the intervening achronological remark "until this day", verse 24 employs the formula "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" to resume the original narrative and bring the reader back to the timing of verse 24.
- Yehoshua 11:7-12 - After sharing how Yehoshua smote the Northern confederation, verse 10 states, "וַיָּשׇׁב יְהוֹשֻׁעַ בָּעֵת הַהִיא וַיִּלְכֹּד אֶת חָצוֹר וְאֶת מַלְכָּהּ הִכָּה בֶחָרֶב".
- A simple reading might imply that Yehoshua first smote the armies of the confederation and then returned to destroy the city of Chatzor.
- According to Ralbag, however, the destruction of Chatzor occurred previously, as part of the conquest described in verse 10. The words "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" expresses the simultaneity of the two events.19
- Yehoshua 11:21 - After summarizing how Yehoshua fought the Canaanites over "many years", verse 21 shares that "at that time" Yehoshua killed the giants of Chevron. Ralbag asserts that this occurred during the years of conquest and not afterwards. As such, the term "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" points to simultaneity or overlapping events, not to two consecutive stories.
- Shofetim 4:4 - Shofetim 4 tells how the nation cried out to God in face of the Canaanite oppression and then continues "And Devorah was the judge at that time". Ralbag suggests that the phrase comes to highlight that Devorah became the judge not during the initial oppression, but specifically when the nation cried out to Hashem.20 Since the text had tangentially mentioned the oppression, though, it employs the phrase "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" to connect her judging back to the nation's cries.
- Melakhim I 11:26-32 - Verses 26-28 speak of Yerovam's rebellion against Shelomo and then the text shares that "at that time" Yerovam encountered Achiyah who prophesied about the tearing of the kingdom.
- Radak claims that despite the order in the text, Achiyah prophesied before Yerovam rebelled. If so, the phrase "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" might be an indicator of achronology here as well.
- One might alternatively suggest that the verses are chronological, and that it was specifically Yerovam's rebellion that merited Yerovam the throne. The phrase might then come to highlight the cause and effect. See Yerovam's Rebellion for how the two possibilities might affect one's reading of the rebellion as a whole.
"אַחַר הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה"
Variations of the phrase "אַחַר הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה"21 appear 13 times in Tanakh.22 R. Avraham b. HaRambam points out that in contrast to the term, "וַיְהִי בָּעֵת הַהִוא" this heading always refers to a story which chronologically follows that which preceded it.23 If so, though, one may question why it is necessary to share the fact. As the default ordering in Tanakh is to recount events chronologically, it would seem to be redundant. Commentators raise several possible answers::
- Chronological connector – R. Huna in Bereshit Rabbah and Rashi24 suggest that the phrase "אַחַר הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה" tells the reader that the coming event happened immediately after whatever preceded it,25 while the variant "אַחֲרֵי הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה" suggests that the upcoming event only occurred after a significant amount of time had elapsed.26 Elsewhere (when no heading is included) the recorded events follow each other, but neither immediately nor significantly later.
- This supposition is somewhat difficult to test as the only chronological marker given for many of these stories is the heading. Nonetheless, in most of the cases, the theory can feasibly work with the surrounding content, even if it cannot be proven.27
- However, in the one case where dating is included, Ezra 7:1, the theory appears mistaken. The chapter opens with "וְאַחַר הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה", implying, according to these sources, that it immediately follows the events of the previous chapter. Yet, while Ezra 6 takes place during the reign of Darius, the events of Ezra 7 first take place in the seventh year of Artachshasta.
- In addition, in contrast to this theory, in at least two cases where the longer "אַחֲרֵי הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה" appears, Bereshit 48:1 and Yehoshua 24:29, the text implies that a long time did not elapse after the previous story. In both cases, the previous chapter speaks of the the main protagonist (Yaakov / Yehoshua) getting old and standing close to death while the following stories speak of their death or deathbed announcements.28
- Content connector – Rashbam alternatively suggests that the phrase is used to relate the content (rather than timing) of two stories, perhaps to show a causal relationship or the like. Several examples follow:
- Bereshit 15:1 – Rashbam maintains that Hashem's reassurance of Avraham in this chapter is a direct reaction to his fear in the aftermath of the battle of the 4-5 kings described in the previous one. The heading hints to the causal relationship.
- Bereshit 22:1 – Rashbam suggests that the story of the Akeidah opens with "וַיְהִי אַחַר הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה", connecting it to the story of Avraham's covenant with Avimelekh discussed at the end of Bereshit 21. He claims that Hashem's testing of Avraham at the Akeidah was a punishment for making the covenant and so the Akeidah was a direct result of the previous event.29 See Purpose of Akeidat Yitzchak for the ramifications for understanding the story.
- Esther 3:1 – Rashbam suggests that the phrase "אַחַר הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה" which introduces the promotion of Haman and his hatred of Mordechai in Esther 3:1 serves to connect these events to Mordechai's unfoiling of Bigtan and Teresh's ploy recorded right beforehand. The text thus subtly foreshadows that this revelation of Mordechai will be the undoing of Haman.
- Divrei HaYamim II 32:1:1 – One could suggest that the story of the Sancheriv's campaign and Yehuda's salvation is linked specifically to Chizkiyahu's reforms ("אַחֲרֵי הַדְּבָרִים וְהָאֱמֶת הָאֵלֶּה") to teach the reader that it was these religious reforms which merited the nation salvation.
- Turning Point – R. Hirsch suggests that, often, the phrase is used to mark a major turning point in someone's life or in the plot of a given story.
- He suggests that, therefore, the two most seminal events in the Avraham narratives, the covenant between the pieces (Bereshit 15) and the Akeidah (Bereshit 22) both open with "אַחַר הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה".
- Bereshit 48:1 - Yaakov's giving to Yosef firstborn status is similarly introduced with "וַיְהִי אַחֲרֵי הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה" as it, too, marks a significant change.
- Divrei HaYamim II 32:1:1 – Sancheriv's campaign against Yehuda opens with "אַחֲרֵי הַדְּבָרִים וְהָאֱמֶת הָאֵלֶּה". This, too, can be explained as marking a new era or turning point, being one of the most significant events in Judean history.
וַיְהִי בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם
Variations of the phrase appear 40 times in Tanakh.30 The phrase appears to function in one of two ways:
- Indicate overlapping events – Ramban maintains that this phrase, as opposed to "אַחַר הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה", teaches that the event about to be described happened during the same general time period as spoken about previously. In other words, the two events are not consecutive but rather overlapping.
- Melakhim II 10:31-32 – The verses share that Yehu began to stray away from Hashem and that "בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם הֵחֵל י״י לְקַצּוֹת בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל וַיַּכֵּם חֲזָאֵל בְּכׇל גְּבוּל יִשְׂרָאֵל". The chronological marker "בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם" might come to to highlight that it was specifically when Yehu veered that the nation was attacked.
- Melakhim II 20:1/ Yeshayahu 38:1 – See Seder Olam Rabbah who suggests that Chizkiyahu's illness and cure did not follow the campaign of Sancheriv, but rather overlapped with it. Modern scholars go further to suggest hat it might have preceded the campaign altogether. According to both, the heading "" might allude to the fact that the event occurred earlier.
- Contrast two eras – In other cases, the phrase might come to contrast two eras, pointing out that something that was true or occurred in one time period, might not have been true of others.
- Shofetim 17-21 - The phrase "בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם אֵין מֶלֶךְ בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל" serves as a refrain throughout the stories of the idol of Michah and the concubine of Givah, highlighting how in that era, as opposed to later, there was no monarch in Israel.
- Shofetim 20:27-28 - These verses perhaps stress how "in those days" the ark was in Beit El and Pinechas was the priest, since this was not true of other eras.
- Shemuel I 3:1– This verse emphasizes "וּדְבַר י״י הָיָה יָקָר בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם" to teach that, in contrast to many eras in Tanakh, at the time of the the story of Shemuel, prophecy was not prevalent.
וְאַחֲרֵי כֵן
Grammatical Markers
עבר מהופך
Tanakh normally expresses the past tense by using the vav conversive form of the verb followed by the subject (וַיֵּלֶךְ אַבְרָם or וַיֹּאמֶר מֹשֶׁה ) . Every so often, though, Tanakh employs the past perfect form (עבר מהופך), beginning with the subject and following with the simple form of the verb (וְהָאָדָם יָדַע or וּבְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל הָלְכוּ). What is the difference in meaning between the two forms? When Torah employs the past perfect, what is it trying to convey?
- Indicator of achronology – Several commentators31 suggest that this form is used when Tanakh wants to express that an action took place in the more distant past, prior to the events being discussed.32 As such, its usage might be an indicator of achronology.
- Bereshit 4:1 - Bereshit 4:1 places the birth of Kayin and Hevel after the expulsion from Eden. Rashi suggest that the past perfect form "וְהָאָדָם יָדַע אֶת חַוָּה אִשְׁתּוֹ" hints to the fact that the birth took place beforehand, while Adam and Chavvah were still in the Garden.
- Bereshit 11:10-23 – After recounting the story of the Tower of Bavel, Bereshit 11:10ff lists the descendants of Shem. The first few verses of the list follow a similar format "..וְפלוני חַי... וַיְחִי פלוני". With the birth of Peleg in verse 17, however, the pattern shifts and we no longer see the past perfect but instead, "...וַיְחִי פלוני... וַיְחִי פלוני". According to Seder Olam Rabbah, it was in Peleg's time period that the story of the Towel of Bavel and dispersal took place. If so, the initial verses which employ the past perfect might be hinting to achronology; all those descendants were born before the Tower was built, and in a purely chronological narrative would have been mentioned beforehand.
- Bereshit 18:17 – After discussing Avraham's interactions with the 3 angels, Bereshit 18:17 states, "וַי״י אָמָר הַמְכַסֶּה אֲנִי מֵאַבְרָהָם אֲשֶׁר אֲנִי עֹשֶׂה". R. D"Z Hoffmann suggests that the past perfect from teaches that Hashem had already decided to share His plans with Avraham. This was not a decision which was made only after Avraham's hospitable actions.
- Bereshit 21:1-2 – Sarah's conception and pregnancy with Yitzchak is described in Bereshit 21. However, Rashi, R. Avraham Saba, and Malbim maintain that Sarah had conceived before or in the middle of the story of Avimelekh's taking of Sarah described in the previous chapter (Bereshit 20), as indicated by the past perfect, "וַה' פָּקַד אֶת שָׂרָה".
- Bereshit 25:29-34 – After discussing how Esav sold his birthright to Yaakov, the verse shares, "וְיַעֲקֹב נָתַן לְעֵשָׂו לֶחֶם וּנְזִיד עֲדָשִׁים". HaKetav VeHaKabbalah suggests that the past perfect of "וְיַעֲקֹב נָתַן" implies that the food was provided before the sale. According to his reading, Yaakov did not pay for the birthright with a pot of soup, but with money. See Sale of the Birthright – A Fair Deal for elaboration of this position.
- Bereshit 39:1 - The chapter opens "" to clarify that Yosef had been taken to Egypt before many of the events of Chapter 38.
- Shemot 14:27-29 – The verses speak first of the Egyptians drowning and then of the Israelites walking through the sea on dry land. However, the past perfect "וּבְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל הָלְכוּ בַיַּבָּשָׁה בְּתוֹךְ הַיָּם" might indicate that the nation had already walked through the sea by the time the Egyptians died. [See Rashbam.]
- Shemot 24:1 – The chapter describes the covenant at Sinai and opens with the past perfect formulation, "וְאֶל מֹשֶׁה אָמַר עֲלֵה". This might support Rashi's assertion that the chapter is achronological and its events took place before revelation, overlapping with those of Chapter 19.33
- Bemidbar 16:32-35 – After sharing that Datan and Aviram were punished by being swallowed in the earth, the chapter concludes: "וְאֵשׁ יָצְאָה מֵאֵת י״י וַתֹּאכַל אֵת הַחֲמִשִּׁים וּמָאתַיִם אִישׁ ". The past perfect form might hint that the two events were simultaneous (and not consecutive) and that all the rebels were punished at the same time.
- Shemuel II 1:1 - The chapter opens: "וַיְהִי אַחֲרֵי מוֹת שָׁאוּל וְדָוִד שָׁב מֵהַכּוֹת אֶת הָעֲמָלֵק". Since the previous chapters had spoken of two simultaneous events, both Shaul's death and David's battle against Amalek, the chapter employs the past perfect "וְדָוִד שָׁב" to clarify that the events of this chapter happened after both Shaul's defeat and death and David's victory..
- Shemuel I 28:3-7 – The story of Shaul and Ba'alat ha'Ov opens by telling the reader, "וּשְׁמוּאֵל מֵת". The past perfect formulation indicates that this happened already (as mentioned in Shemuel I 25:1). [It is mentioned again only as a necessary introduction to the revival of the prophet later in the chapter.]
- Shemuel II 3:12-19 – The chapter speaks of Avner's proposal to make a covenant with David. He tells David that he will sway the nation being ruled by Ishboshet to accept David as their king in his stead and David makes the plan contingent on Ishboshet's returning of Michal. After the condition is met, the verses share "וּדְבַר אַבְנֵר הָיָה עִם זִקְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל לֵאמֹר גַּם תְּמוֹל גַּם שִׁלְשֹׁם הֱיִיתֶם מְבַקְשִׁים אֶת דָּוִד לְמֶלֶךְ עֲלֵיכֶם". Rashi suggests that the past perfect "הָיָה" implies that he had already spoken with the nation beforehand. [If so, it was perhaps the recognition that all was already lost, that led Ishboshet to comply.]
- Melakhim I 20:1-4 – The chapter describes the war between Aram and Achav. The past perfect form in the heading, "וּבֶן הֲדַד מֶלֶךְ אֲרָם קָבַץ אֶת כׇּל חֵילוֹ" might imply that the story is achronological and really took place earlier, during the years of drought brought by Eliyahu.34
- Marker of contrast – In other cases, the past perfect form might serve to contrast two subjects or actions. Several examples follow:
- In Bereshit 4:2, when contrasting the professions of Kayin and Hevel, the verse writes, "וַיְהִי הֶבֶל רֹעֵה צֹאן וְקַיִן הָיָה עֹבֵד אֲדָמָה". A similar contrast appears two verses later, "וַיָּבֵא קַיִן מִפְּרִי הָאֲדָמָה... וְהֶבֶל הֵבִיא גַם הוּא".
- Bereshit 39:1 - The past perfect "וְיוֹסֵף הוּרַד" is meant to parallel "וַיֵּרֶד יְהוּדָה" of the previous chapter. The text thus calls on the reader to contrast the two leaders and compare their stories.
- Or Hachaim suggests that in Bereshit 41:1 the past perfect "וּפַרְעֹה חֹלֵם" serves to contrast Paroh's dream with that of the butler and baker in the previous chapter.
- Bemidbar 16:32-35 contrasts the punishment of Datan and Aviram and the 250 men, sharing "וַתִּפְתַּח הָאָרֶץ אֶת פִּיהָ... וְאֵשׁ יָצְאָה". Here, too, the grammatical change in form highlights the contrast in punishment.
