Literary:Structural Devices/0

Structural Devices

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Framing and Inclusios

An inclusio, or envelope structure, is a literary device in which a unit of text is framed by placing similar language at its beginning and end. In Hebrew, the device is referred to as: "סיים במה שפתח". The device often serves simply to delineate the bookends of a unit, though sometimes, too, it highlights some progression, reversal, or message. Elsewhere (especially in small units of text) it might serve to emphasize a point. It is also possible that at times, the technique might be purely aesthetic in function. Some examples follow:

Unit Marker

• Avraham Narratives – The core of the Avraham narratives is bracketed by the command of "לֶךְ לְךָ". In Chapter 12, Hashem tells Avraham: "לֶךְ לְך...  אֶל הָאָרֶץ אֲשֶׁר אַרְאֶךָּ". In Chapter 22, before the Akeidah, Hashem echoes, "לֶךְ לְךָ... עַל אַחַד הֶהָרִים אֲשֶׁר אֹמַר אֵלֶיך".
• Yishmael Narratives – The stories about Yishmael are framed by the promise "עַל פְּנֵי כׇל אֶחָיו יִשְׁכֹּן" in Chapter 16:12  and the fulfillment of that promise in Bereshit 25: "עַל פְּנֵי כׇל אֶחָיו נָפָל".
• Yaakov in Charan – Bereshit 28 opens with Yitzchak blessing Yaakov, "וְאֵל שַׁדַּי יְבָרֵךְ אֹתְךָ וְיַפְרְךָ וְיַרְבֶּךָ וְהָיִיתָ לִקְהַל עַמִּים", as he heads to Beit El and then Charan. In Bereshit 35, when Yaakov returns to Beit El from Charan, Hashem blesses him, "אֱלֹהִים אֲנִי אֵל שַׁדַּי פְּרֵה וּרְבֵה גּוֹי וּקְהַל גּוֹיִם יִהְיֶה מִמֶּךָּ", closing the circle.
• Yosef as Slave – Bereshit 39 is one sub-unit of the Yosef narratives, depicting his time as a slave.  It both opens and closes with the statement "וַיְהִי י״י אֶת יוֹסֵף", emphasizing how despite Yosef's hardships, God was consistently there, ensuring his ultimate success. .
• Laws of the Moadim – Vayikra 23 opens: "...דַּבֵּר אֶל בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל וְאָמַרְתָּ אֲלֵהֶם מוֹעֲדֵי י״י" and closes: "וַיְדַבֵּר מֹשֶׁה אֶת מֹעֲדֵי י״י אֶל בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל".  The similar phrasing at the beginning and end frames the unit of festivals.¹
• Work of the Levites – Bemidbar 4:24-28, which discusses the tasks of the Gershonites, both opens and closes with the statement, "זֹאת עֲבֹדַת מִשְׁפְּחֹת הַגֵּרְשֻׁנִּי".
• Laws of Mussaf offerings – Bemidbar 28, which discusses the laws of the Mussaf offerings, begins, " וַיְדַבֵּר יְהֹוָה אֶל מֹשֶׁה לֵּאמֹר.צַו אֶת בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל".  The unit ends in Bemidbar 30:1 with very similar language, "וַיֹּאמֶר מֹשֶׁה אֶל בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל כְּכֹל אֲשֶׁר צִוָּה יְהֹוָה אֶת מֹשֶׁה". The unit is thus framed by Hashem's command and its fulfillment.
• Speech of the "מצוה" – Devarim 6-11, 1he first part of Moshe's legal speech to the nation on the eve of his death, comprises a discussion of relationship based laws, such as "the mitzvah", the command to love God.² As such, it is bracketed by two very similar units, the first two parshiot of "Shema": "וְאָהַבְתָּ אֵת י"י אֱלֹהֶיךָ בְּכׇל לְבָבְךָ וּבְכׇל נַפְשְׁךָ" and "וְהָיָה אִם שָׁמֹעַ.. לְאַהֲבָה אֶת י"י אֱלֹהֵיכֶם... בְּכׇל לְבַבְכֶם וּבְכׇל נַפְשְׁכֶם".‎³
• Tehillim 118 – This psalms opens and closes with the identical phrase, " הוֹדוּ לַי״י כִּי טוֹב כִּי לְעוֹלָם חַסְדּוֹ".

Highlighting Progression or Reversals

• Avraham Narratives – The above mentioned framing of the Avraham narratives with the dual command of "לֶךְ לְךָ" might also be seen as indicating a progression.  In Hashem's opening command He tells Avraham to leave his homeland and family, effectively telling Avraham to abandon his past. In Chapter 22, with the command to slaughter Yitzchak, Hashem tells him to also abandon his future.
• The Exodus narrative is framed with stories of destruction and deliverance through water. It begins with the decree to drown the Jewish baby boys and the saving of Moshe from the Nile. It concludes with the splitting of the sea, which provides salvation for the Israelites, but drowns the Egyptians. The structure both demarcates the unit and highlights the measure for measure aspects of the story. [In this example, in contrast to the others, there is no linguistically similar language framing the unit.]
• Yeshayahu 1:21-26 – Yeshayahu opens by lamenting the state of Yerushalayim, "אֵיכָה הָיְתָה לְזוֹנָה קִרְיָה נֶאֱמָנָה מְלֵאֲתִי מִשְׁפָּט צֶדֶק יָלִין בָּהּ", but ends the unit with hope for the future, "אַחֲרֵי כֵן יִקָּרֵא לָךְ עִיר הַצֶּדֶק קִרְיָה נֶאֱמָנָה..." The similar language highlights the contrast between the present and future.

• Tehillim 145 – The psalm opens " תְּהִלָּה לְדָוִד...  וַאֲבָרְכָה שִׁמְךָ לְעוֹלָם וָעֶד" and closes, "תְּהִלַּת י"י... וִיבָרֵךְ כׇּל בָּשָׂר שֵׁם קׇדְשׁוֹ לְעוֹלָם וָעֶד". The Rokeach notes that the last line of the psalm contains echoes of the opening verse. In this case, the inclusio highlights a progression from beginning to end. While the psalm opens with praise to David, it ends with praise to Hashem. While initially it is an individual who blesses, at the end it is "all flesh". Finally, it is not just God's name which is blessed, but His holy name For further discussion, see Mizmor 145.

Emphasis

Sometimes, especially when found in small units of speech or text, an inclusio serves to emphasize the speaker's main point; one begins and ends with what he wants to stress.

• Shemuel I 3:17 – After Shemuel receives his first prophecy, Eli urges him to share what he heard, stressing that he not hold anything back: "וַיֹּאמֶר מָה הַדָּבָר אֲשֶׁר דִּבֶּר אֵלֶיךָ אַל נָא תְכַחֵד מִמֶּנִּי ...אִם תְּכַחֵד מִמֶּנִּי דָּבָר מִכׇּל הַדָּבָר אֲשֶׁר דִּבֶּר אֵלֶיךָ." 
• Shemuel I 18:20-28 – The story of Michal's marriage to David is sandwiched by mention of Michal's love to David. It opens, "וַתֶּאֱהַב מִיכַל בַּת שָׁאוּל אֶת דָּוִד" and closes, "וּמִיכַל בַּת שָׁאוּל אֲהֵבַתְהוּ". For discussion of the significance of this point to the narrative, see Michal and David.
• Shemuel I 19:4-5 – Yonatan pleads with his father not to kill David: "אַל יֶחֱטָא הַמֶּלֶךְ בְּעַבְדּוֹ בְדָוִד...  וְלָמָּה תֶחֱטָא... לְהָמִית אֶת דָּוִד", sandwiching his various arguments with his main point "do not sin by harming David".
• Melakhim I 20:23-25 – In discussing their previous defeat in war and upcoming battle, the Arameans state, "נִלָּחֵם אִתָּם בַּמִּישׁוֹר אִם לֹא נֶחֱזַק מֵהֶם.וְאֶת הַדָּבָר הַזֶּה עֲשֵׂה...  וְנִלָּחֲמָה אוֹתָם בַּמִּישׁוֹר אִם לֹא נֶחֱזַק מֵהֶם". They emphasize at both the beginning and end that as long as they fight in the plain, they will succeed.

Chiasms

A chiasm, also known as a ring composition or chiastic structure, is a literary device in which a narrative or other unit of text is built upon the pattern: A-B-C-B'-A' (or A-B-B'-A') with each letter pair being a linguistic or content parallel.⁴ These are found in both larger narrative units and individual verses. In the former, such structures often highlight plot reversals and the turning point which led to them. In the latter, they might serve an aesthetic function, prevent monotony, or highlight inverse parallelisms. Some examples follow:

Chiasms in Narrative Units

Examples of chiastic structures in large narrative units follow:

• The Flood Story – See Literary Devices – Bereshit 6–9, for a visual of the chiastic structure of the flood narrative, which emphasizes how Hashem's destruction was accompanied by salvation and rebuilding. The outer ring marks Hashem's decision to destroy the world via flood on one hand, and his promise not to ever bring another similar destructive flood on the other. The next ring discusses Noach's initial entering of the ark and his final departure from it. The inner rings mentions periods of 7, 40 and 150 days in the context of both the waters increasing and then decreasing. Finally, the middle verse states that "Hashem remembered Noach", marking the turning point from destruction to rebuilding.
• The Tower of Bavel – The story of the Tower of Bavel in Bereshit 11 is structured as a chiasm, as depicted in this visual. The structure highlights how each of man's plans was foiled by Hashem. The words "וירד ה' לראות" stand in the middle, highlighting that though man might think he is at the center, it is really Hashem who controls all.⁵
• Hashem's Speech in Shemot 6:2-8 – Hashem's speech to Moshe as he embarks on his mission to Paroh is built in a chiastic structure, with the outer ring emphasizing that "I am God", the next ring referencing the forefathers, the next mentioning the promise of the Land,  and the inner ring speaking of Hashem choosing Israel as his nation, and He as their God. The structure emphasizes Hashem's special relationship with the nation.
• The Second Half of Sefer Shemot – R. David Fohrman⁶ suggests that the second half of Sefer Shemot is structured chiastically, with the sin of the calf at its center.  It opens with Hashem's presence dwelling on Sinai (Shemot 24) and continues with directives to build the Tabernacle (Shemot 25-31), and the commandment of Shabbat (31:15-17). Chapters 32-34 describe the episode of the sin of the golden calf, and then the earlier components reappear: the commandments of Shabbat (35:1-3), building the Tabernacle (35-40), mention of Hashem's presence in the Tabernacle. The structure highlights the full renewal of the relationship between the Jewish people and Hashem in the wake of the sin of the calf
• The Book of Esther – R"Y Grossmann⁷ suggests that the entire Book of Esther is built on a series of contrasting parallels, in a chiastic structure, highlighting one of the book's main themes, that Haman's plot was not only foiled but fell upon his own head: "בַּיּוֹם אֲשֶׁר שִׂבְּרוּ אֹיְבֵי הַיְּהוּדִים לִשְׁלוֹט בָּהֶם וְנַהֲפוֹךְ הוּא אֲשֶׁר יִשְׁלְטוּ הַיְּהוּדִים הֵמָּה בְּשֹׂנְאֵיהֶם". For details, see Plot Reversals in Esther.

Chiasms in Individual Verses

Examples of chiasms in individual verses abound in Tanakh, especially in poetic passages.  Many of these are in effect simply inverse synonymous parallels. Here are just a few:

• Bereshit 4:4-6 – וַיִּשַׁע י״י אֶל הֶבֶל וְאֶל מִנְחָתוֹ, וְאֶל קַיִן וְאֶל מִנְחָתוֹ לֹא שָׁעָה 
• Bereshit 9:6 – "שֹׁפֵךְ דַּם הָאָדָם, בָּאָדָם דָּמוֹ יִשָּׁפֵךְ"
• Shemot 17:7⁸ – וַיִּקְרָא שֵׁם הַמָּקוֹם מַסָּה וּמְרִיבָה עַל רִיב בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל וְעַל נַסֹּתָם אֶת י״י
• Yeshayahu 3:8 –  "כָשְׁלָה יְרוּשָׁלַ͏ִם, וִיהוּדָה נָפָל"
• Yeshayahu 5:7 – "כֶרֶם י״י צְבָאוֹת בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל, וְאִישׁ יְהוּדָה נְטַע שַׁעֲשׁוּעָיו"
• Yirmeyahu 48:41 – "נִלְכְּדָה הַקְּרִיּוֹת, וְהַמְּצָדוֹת נִתְפָּשָׂה"
• Tehillim 1:1 – "אַשְׁרֵי הָאִישׁ אֲשֶׁר לֹא הָלַךְ בַּעֲצַת רְשָׁעִים, וּבְדֶרֶךְ חַטָּאִים לֹא עָמָד"

Parallel Structure

Sometimes narrative units are structured in two halves, where each half parallels the other (A-B-C - A'-B'-C'). As above, such parallelism can be found in both larger narrative units and also in individual verses. In larger units, parallelism might contribute to a feeling of harmonious order or continuity, or alternatively, serve to highlight certain reversals or a progression between the two halves of the passage.⁹  In individual verses, direct parallelism might be purely aesthetic or serve to emphasize the import or lofty nature of a verse or speech by lending it poetic formality.

Narrative Units

The following are examples of parallel structure in larger narrative units

• Creation – R. Hirsch notes that the description of Creation in Bereshit 1 can be divided into two parallel sections: Days 1-3 which describe the creation of the cosmos, and Days 4-6 which describe the creation of its inhabitants.  These are surrounded by an introduction and conclusion which each mention the creation of heavens and earth, forming an inclusio. The purpose of the structure might be simply to emphasize the orderliness and harmony in Creation:¹⁰
  • • Introduction: creation of heavens and earth
    • Day 1: light is made – Day 4: luminaries are created.
    • Day 2: sea and sky are made – Day 5:  fauna of sea and sky are created.
    • Day 3: land is separated – Day 6: the land's inhabitants, animals and people, are created.
    • Conclusion: completion of heavens and earth
• The Akeidah – One might argue that the narrative of the Akeidah is also built in two halves, each paralleling the other. The first half describes Avraham's journey to do God's bidding (Bereshit 22:1-9), while the second half details his rewards for being willing to do so (22:11-19). Each section contains parallels to the other,¹¹ perhaps to highlight both the reversal of the initial command and the "measure for measure" nature of the reward:
• In verse 1, Hashem calls Avraham by name, and he responds with eagerness: "וַיֹּאמֶר אֵלָיו אַבְרָהָם וַיֹּאמֶר הִנֵּנִי". The angel echoes the call in verse 11, and Avraham replies in like manner: "וַיֹּאמֶר אַבְרָהָם אַבְרָהָם וַיֹּאמֶר הִנֵּנִי".
• In verse 2, Hashem commands, "קַח נָא אֶת בִּנְךָ אֶת יְחִידְךָ אֲשֶׁר אָהַבְתָּ". In verse 12, after Avraham proved himself compliant, the angel undoes the command: "כִּי עַתָּה יָדַעְתִּי כִּי יְרֵא אֱלֹהִים אַתָּה וְלֹא חָשַׂכְתָּ אֶת בִּנְךָ אֶת יְחִידְךָ מִמֶּנִּי".
• In verse 4, Avraham lifts his eyes to see the site where he is to slaughter Yitzchak: "וַיִּשָּׂא אַבְרָהָם אֶת עֵינָיו וַיַּרְא אֶת הַמָּקוֹם מֵרָחֹק". In verse 13, he lifts his eyes to find the ram that will replace him: ".וַיִּשָּׂא אַבְרָהָם אֶת עֵינָיו וַיַּרְא וְהִנֵּה אַיִל".
• In verses 6-8, we are told that Yitzchak and Avraham travel together to the Akeidah, "וַיֵּלְכוּ שְׁנֵיהֶם יַחְדָּו". In verse 19, they travel home together: "וַיֵּלְכוּ יַחְדָּו".
• Moshe's Formative Years (Shemot 2) – R. David Thee, משה הילד ומשה האיש, has suggested that Shemot 2 is structured in two parallel halves, the first unit (verses 1-10) describing Moshe the child, and the second unit (11-22), describing Moshe the adult. In both halves someone defies Paroh's decree (Moshe's mother in having a son, and Moshe by killing the Egyptian). Each attempts to conceal the action, but are unsuccessful. Both baby Moshe and the adult Moshe find refuge in the water (the Nile or by a well). Baby Moshe is then saved by a non-Jew, while adult Moshe saves other non-Jews. Each half ends with Moshe finding food and shelter in a new home. The structure highlights a continuity between the two halves; the actions done on behalf of Moshe the child might have influenced him to become the adult savior that he grew into.
• Negotiations in Bereshit 23 – In Bereshit 23:3-13, Avraham negotiates for a burial plot first with the Hittites as a whole, and then with Efron specifically. The two sets of negotiations are parallel to each other.  Both contain an identification of the negotiating parties, a Hittite response including a respectful address and offer of free burial, and Avraham's bowing and counteroffer of payment. For discussion and a visual highlighting the linguistic and content parallels, see Literary Devices – Bereshit 23
• The Book of Yonah – The Book of Yonah is structured into two parallel halves. The first two chapters detail Yonah's first aborted mission, while the last two detail his fulfilling of his mission. For a full analysis, see Structure – Sefer Yonah.
• Each unit opens with Hashem's call and the prophet's disobedience or compliance.
• This is followed by a description of people in danger of destruction whose ensuing actions and cries to God lead to their salvation.
• Both units end with a focus on the prophet Yonah who prays and is answered with miraculous messages.

Individual Verses

Many individual verses, especially in poetic passages, blessings, and curses, contain parallelisms.  A few of many examples follow:

• Bereshit 3:16 – הַרְבָּה אַרְבֶּה עִצְּבוֹנֵךְ וְהֵרֹנֵךְ / בְּעֶצֶב תֵּלְדִי בָנִים / וְאֶל אִישֵׁךְ תְּשׁוּקָתֵךְ / וְהוּא יִמְשׇׁל בָּךְ
• Bereshit 4:23-24  – עָדָה וְצִלָּה שְׁמַעַן קוֹלִי / נְשֵׁי לֶמֶךְ הַאְזֵנָּה אִמְרָתִי / כִּי אִישׁ הָרַגְתִּי לְפִצְעִי / וְיֶלֶד לְחַבֻּרָתִי
• Bereshit 27:28 –  יַעַבְדוּךָ עַמִּים/  וְיִשְׁתַּחֲווּ לְךָ לְאֻמִּים / הֱוֵה גְבִיר לְאַחֶיךָ / וְיִשְׁתַּחֲווּ לְךָ בְּנֵי אִמֶּךָ
• Bereshit 49:7 –  אָרוּר אַפָּם כִּי עָז / וְעֶבְרָתָם כִּי קָשָׁתָה / אֲחַלְּקֵם בְּיַעֲקֹב / וַאֲפִיצֵם בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל
• Bereshit 49:11–  אֹסְרִי לַגֶּפֶן עִירֹה / וְלַשֹּׂרֵקָה בְּנִי אֲתֹנוֹ / כִּבֵּס בַּיַּיִן לְבֻשׁוֹ / וּבְדַם עֲנָבִים סוּתֹה
• Shemuel I 2:1 – עָלַץ לִבִּי בַּי"י / רָמָה קַרְנִי בַּי"י

Headings

Tanakh is not formatted in such a manner as to allow for titles or headings. It is possible, though, that sometimes sentence fragments serve such a purpose.  See the following examples:

• Yirmeyahu 38:28 – The verse ends with a  sentence fragment, "וְהָיָה כַּאֲשֶׁר נִלְכְּדָה יְרוּשָׁלָ͏ִם" which might serve as a heading for the next unit which discusses Yerushalayim's destruction.
• "אֵלֶּה תּוֹלְדֹת" – Throughout Sefer Bereshit, certain units begin "אֵלֶּה תּוֹלְדֹת... ".  Though some of these are immediately followed by a genealogy list, in other cases an entire story is told before one gets to the list of descendants.  It is possible that this phrase, too, serves as a heading and title of an entire unit.

Double Heading / Conclusions

Sometimes a unit of text will have two headings or two summations.

• Vayikra 23 – The chapter discusses the yearly cycle of festivals and contains both a double heading and a double conclusion. In verse 2 Hashem commands Moshe "וְאָמַרְתָּ אֲלֵהֶם מוֹעֲדֵי י״י" and then, after a digression about Shabbat, again in verse 4 we are told: "אֵלֶּה מוֹעֲדֵי י״י".  Towards the end of the chapter, after discussing all the holidays, verse 37 summarizes: אֵלֶּה מוֹעֲדֵי י״י אֲשֶׁר תִּקְרְאוּ אֹתָם מִקְרָאֵי קֹדֶשׁ". Surprisingly, though, the verses then return to speak more about Sukkot, and then once again finish with a concluding statement: "וַיְדַבֵּר מֹשֶׁה אֶת מֹעֲדֵי י״י אֶל בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל."  It is possible that the doubling reflects the dual focus of the chapter. The chapter might really speak of two distinct cycles of holidays: 1) the three pilgrimage festivals and2)  the days of "Shabbaton": Shabbat and various the festivals of Tishrei.

Heading Followed by Details: כלל ופרט

The principle commonly known as a "כלל ופרט" or "כלל ואחר כך מפרש" is a literary device in which a narrative opens with a general statement which is then elaborated upon. The verse/s following the heading provide explanatory notes or details which might involve a restatement of the original verse or simply supply more information.

• For examples which involve a restatement of the original verse, see Redundancy.
• For other examples, see: Ramban Bereshit 6:8, R"Y Bekhor Shor Shemot 4:20, Ramban Shemot 15:9,

Executive Summary

¹ See Ramban Bemidbar 30:1 who notes this.

² The term "הַמִּצְוָה" is found in Torah almost exclusively in Sefer Devarim, and though at times it might refer to general commandments, in several places, such as Chapter 6, it seems to refer specifically to the command to love Hashem. See It is Not in the Heavens for further discussion.

³ Compare Devarim 6:5-9 and Devarim 11:13-21 here to see the extent of the parallels between the two units.

⁴ The word itself comes from the Greek letter "chi", equivalent to the English "x", the structure formed by the inverse repetition of elements. For discussion of the phenomenon in Tanakh and many examples, see Y. Grossman's Chiastic and Concentric Structures.

⁵ See this interactive module to explore the chiasm and other literary devices used in the narrative.

⁶ See his video A Giant Chiasm in Sefer Shemot.

⁷ See J. Grossman, Esther: The Outer Narrative and the Hidden Reading (Winona Lake, Indiana, 2011): 14

⁸ See Ibn Ezra on the verse who notes the phenomenon, " ומשפט לשון הקדש, כאשר יזכיר שני דברים, יחל לעולם מהשני, שהוא קרוב,", poinitng to another example in Yehoshua 24:4 (וָאֶתֵּן לְיִצְחָק אֶת יַעֲקֹב וְאֶת עֵשָׂו וָאֶתֵּן לְעֵשָׂו אֶת הַר שֵׂעִיר לָרֶשֶׁת אוֹתוֹ וְיַעֲקֹב וּבָנָיו יָרְדוּ מִצְרָיִם.)

⁹ For further discussion of the phenomenon and discussion of several examples, see Y. Grossman, "Artistic Structure".  See also his article, Between Chiastic and Classical Parallelism which compares concentric or chiastic structures with parallel structures.

¹⁰ Prof. Yonatan Grossman, in his article, Artistic Structure, argues that the structure also highlights a progression from static to dynamic creation. In Days 3-6, God has His previous creations, water and land, share in the act of creation, as they "bring forth" the new beings.  These new beings, in turn, are dynamic, with luminaries being given the task to rule, fish and birds to proliferate, and man to conquer all.

¹¹ It should be noted, however, that the structure here is not as tight as it could be for there are several verses in each half which contain no parallel.