Overview – Sefer Shemot/0/he

סקירה של ספר שמות

מבנה הספר

Sefer Shemot recounts how the Israelites transformed from a nation of slaves serving Paroh to a nation of free people serving Hashem.  It can be divided into three main sections:

• "Slavery and Redemption" – The first unit, Chapters 1:1 – 15:21, speaks of the period of bondage and Israel's physical emancipation by Hashem.¹
• "A Nation in Transition" – The second section, Chapters 15:22 – 18:27, is a transition unit which describes the short period when the nation is already free, but has not yet covenantally bound itself to God. It describes the people's first challenges on the road to nationhood.
• "Servants of Hashem" – The last section, Chapters 19:1 – 40:38, speaks of the nation's spiritual redemption and their entering into a covenantal relationship with Hashem.²

This division is based on the above thematic issues, the different settings of each unit,³ and the varying protagonists highlighted in each section.⁴  The Song of the Sea (Chapter 15) serves as a further literary marker, festively closing the first unit and dividing between the prose accounts which surround it. For elaboration on the book's structure and further subdivisions of each of its sections, ראו מבנה – ספר שמות.

שמות של הספר

Several titles have been given to the book:

• The name "וְאֵלֶּה שְׁמוֹת" is derived from the opening words of the book, and dates back to antiquity.⁵
•  ספר דקדוקי הטעמיםספר דקדוקי הטעמים לר' אהרן בן משה בן אשר פיסקה 70 (עמ' 57) records two additional and more descriptive titles, "ספר יציאת מצרים" ("Exodus")⁶ and "ספר הברית"‎ ("The Book of the Covenant").⁷ These two names focus on different halves of the book and may express competing claims as to the book's central theme.⁸
• רמב"ןשמות הקדמהאודות ר' משה בן נחמן entitles the book "ספר הגאולה" ("The Book of Redemption"), and contends that it encompasses the motifs of both halves of the book. According to Ramban, while the first part of the book recounts the people's physical redemption, it is only at the end of the book, with the completion of the Tabernacle, that the spiritual redemption occurs.

Themes

התהוות עם ישראל

ר' דוד צבי הופמןשמות הקדמהאודות ר' דוד צבי הופמן points out that just as Sefer Bereshit speaks of the creation of the world, Sefer Shemot speaks of the creation of the Nation of Israel. Indeed, much of the book revolves around this theme, making the reader ponder both how a nation is initially formed and how it successfully develops.

• From family to nation – What defines nationhood?  At what point do the tribes switch from being the sons of Yaakov to the "Children of Israel"?  What role did the trials of exile and enslavement play in this transition?  ראו מטרות שעבוד מצרים.
• Preparing for autonomy – How does a nation of slaves ready itself for autonomous rule? Were the people prepared for freedom, let alone nationhood, when they left Egypt? How did the Wilderness experience contribute to the peoples' maturation and independence? ראו רמב"ן ב"דרך שלשת ימים"? והסבת העם דרך המדבר.
• Challenges faced – The nascent nation faced many challenges, both in the physical and in the spiritual realm, including drought, hunger, war, and questioning of God. How did they deal with these? ראו ניסים ומצוות במרה, לקיטת המן באמנות, מחיית עמלק, וחטא העגל.
• Creating a legal system – Parashat Yitro and Mishpatim detail the initial laws given to the fledgling nation. How does Israel's law code set it apart from its neighbors?  What are its underlying values and principles?  ראו התורה וחוקי מזרח הקדמון והאם משה היה זקוק לעצת יתרו?.
• See also the section below on Leadership.

עבדי ה': Becoming עם ה'

Through the events of the Exodus and Revelation at Sinai, the Nation of Israel begins to forge a covenantal relationship with Hashem.  What does Sefer Shemot teach about Israel's religious journey?

• Religiosity in Egypt – What did the Israelites know of Hashem before the Exodus? Did they keep a distinct lifestyle in Egypt, or had they acculturated into their surroundings?  ראו זהותם הדתית של בני ישראל במצרים וסיפור יציאת מצרים וארבעת הבנים.⁹
• Growth through suffering and salvation – How did the nation's experiences in Egypt, during both the suffering of the bondage and the miracles of the redemption, affect their religious identification and relationship with Hashem? ראו מטרות שעבוד מצרים ומטרת מכות מצרים.
• Doubts – Did the nation willingly follow Moshe and Hashem out of Egypt, or did some of them hesitate to venture into the unknown and take on the responsibilities of Judaism? ראו "דרך שלשת ימים"?, הסבת העם דרך המדבר, וסיפור יציאת מצרים וארבעת הבנים.
• Marah – The nation's first stop in the Wilderness after attaining freedom is Marah. Here, we are told, the people received "חֹק וּמִשְׁפָּט".  What were the first lessons that Hashem wanted to instill in the nascent nation? How did these help them develop as both a people and in their relationship with Hashem? ראו ניסים ומצוות במרה.
• Wilderness wanderings – During the nation's first months in the Wilderness, they encounter both lack of food and water and attacks by enemies, but also God's miraculous assistance.  Did these events instill faith or diminish it?¹⁰
• Revelation – What was the experience of revelation at Sinai like?  Did the entire nation hear the entire Decalogue directly from Hashem or did Moshe act as intermediary for either part or all of the experience?  What would be the purpose of having an intermediary?  How would either scenario have affected the people's later belief and observance? להרחבה, ראו עשרת הדברים: ישירות מהקב"ה או דרך משה?
• The Decalogue – Why were these ten statements chosen to be the ones revealed by Hashem to the nation at Sinai?
• The Mishkan – Much of the second half of Shemot revolves around the building of the Mishkan.  Why was such an edifice needed for Divine worship? Did it serve mainly as a vehicle for revelation or for atonement? Why was centralization of worship so important? ראו מטרת המשכן.
• Sin of the Golden Calf – All relationships have their ups and downs, and Israel and Hashem are no exception.  Shortly after receiving the Decalogue, the people appear to revert back to idolatry when they make a Golden Calf. What prompts them to do so?  Did they really try to replace God so soon after the Revelation at Sinai?  How could Aharon have been a part of such a rite? ראו חטא העגל.

אתגרי מנהיגות

Sefer Shemot introduces the first national head of Israel, Moshe, and in so doing touches upon many issues related to leadership:

• What makes a leader? Why was Moshe chosen to lead the Jewish people? What do the incidents of Shemot Chapters 2-4 suggest?
• Relating to God, relating to man – Are the qualities needed to become the greatest of prophets the same as those required to be a political and national leader?  Did Moshe excel in both areas equally?  השוו בין עמדות רלב"ג ואברבנאל בהאם משה היה זקוק לעצת יתרו?¹¹
• Moshe's early religiosity – What was Moshe's religious outlook before being appointed by Hashem at the Burning Bush? How knowledgable was he of his Israelite background? How aware was he of Hashem?  What does Moshe's decision to marry the Midianite Zipporah suggest?  ראו חיי משפחה של משה ותעלומת סיפור המלון.

• Family life – What toll does leadership take on the quality of the leader's family life? How did Moshe's national duties affect his relationship with Tzipporah? ראו "אחר שילוחיה" – מי שלח מה למי?, תעלומת סיפור המלון, חיי משפחה של משה, וביקורת מרים על משה והכושית.
• Impediments to leadership – Moshe is described as being "כְבַד פֶּה וּכְבַד לָשׁוֹן". Why would Hashem choose an orator with speech difficulties?  How might this choice have affected Moshe's ability to lead? How might have it affected the nation's perception of him?  ראו "כבד פה וכבד לשון" של משה.
• Responsibilities – What were Moshe's various responsibilities as Israel's leader?  How much time did he spend on each of his judicial, administrative, military, and prophetic duties? Which of these was he willing to delegate to others?  Which did he think only he could carry out?  Why? ראו תפקידי משה ועצת יתרו.
• Who gets to lead? Is it better to be led by a few or by the many?  Yitro's system of judges of tens, fifties, hundreds, and thousands would suggested a very מערכת יתרו – בירוקרטיה מנופחת?; was that really efficient?  Is it preferable that cultic roles be assigned to each family or be limited to just one tribe? Should leadership be related to lineage (and thus dynastic), or should it be a meritocracy? ראו בחירת הכהנים והלויים.
• Flawed leadership? Must our leaders be viewed as perfect role models, or is it legitimate to criticize some of their actions? Is הריגת משה את המצרי and taking the law into his own hands, an act to be emulated or a cause for concern? How are we to understand Aharon's role בחטא העגל? 
  
• Righteous Gentiles – Who were the midwives who risked their lives in disobeying Paroh?  Were they Jewish or Gentile?  What gives one the strength to stand up to authority and fight injustice? ראו מי היו המילדות?.

קיום ההבטחות לאבות

Much of the first half of Sefer Shemot constitutes a fulfillment of promises made to the forefathers in Sefer Bereshit.

The Legal Sections of Shemot

Sefer Shemot contains a significant amount of legal material.  These units raise several important questions regarding the Torah's judicial code:

• Law and order? – Is the purpose of the Torah's commands to lay down principles of right and wrong or to preserve law and order? Is it possible that certain commandments are only a concession to human foibles, or that others serve purely a practical or utilitarian purpose?¹²  What do the legal sections of the Torah suggest?  נושאים בספר שמות שדנים בשאלות אלה כוללים: מטרת פסח מצרים, "עין תחת עין", מטרת המשכן ומטרת מזבח הקטורת ומיקום הציווי.
• Divine civil law – One of the hallmarks of the Torah is that it incorporates both cultic and civil legislation. Not only are religious observances ordained by Hashem; secular law is as well. What are the advantages of such a system? How does it compare to a system which has a separation of church and state?  [ראו בעל עקדת יצחק בהאם משה היה זקוק לעצת יתרו?]
• מערכת הענשה – בקביעת עונשים, איזו מהמטרות הבאות היא הכי חשובה: פיצוי הקרבן, שיקום העבריין, נקמה, או הרתעה? איזה מטמה אפשר ללמוד מדין "עין תחת עין"? האם הוא משקף גישה סטנדרטית של התורה, או שהוא יוצא דופן?  אילו יעדים מושגים באמצעות בחירת העונשים השונים בתורה? ראו "עין תחת עין", נזק לעוברי אורח ומשמעות "יהיה אסון", ערי מקלט – למטרת הצלה או גלות?, ומחיית עמלק.
•  טעמי המצוות – בדרך כלל, התורה אינה מפרשת את טעמי המצוות. טעמי מצוות בין אדם לחברו הם לעיתים קרובות מובנים מאליהם, אך מצוות רבות שבין אדם למקום, מעלים את השאלה "למה". האם עדיף לבחון את טעמי המצוות, או שעדיף לקבל אותן בלי לחפש הסבר? מהם היתרונות והחסרונות של כל גישה?  [לדיונים באיך מפרשים שונים מבינים את טעמי המצוות השונות, ראו הנושאים ההלכתיים בקטעים הקודמים, וראו גם חמץ ומצה בפסח מצרים, מטרת שנת השמיטה, ומטרת השולחן ולחם הפנים.]

Theological Issues

Many theological and philosophical issues are raised by the various stories of Sefer Shemot:

• צדיק ורע לו – Sefer Shemot does not preface the description of the nation's bondage with mention of any sin, making one question what they did to deserve such a fate. Why was the decree of exile and enslavement necessary? In general, why is suffering sometimes part of the Divine plan?  ראו מטרות שעבוד מצרים and, for a general discussion of the issue of theodicy, ראו צדיק ורע לו.
• Free will – Throughout the story of the Plagues, we read how Hashem repeatedly hardened Paroh's heart, causing him to persist in the enslavement of the Israelites. Taken at face value, these verses suggest that Hashem actively made Paroh sin. Why would Hashem try to keep someone from repenting?  Moreover, do these verses suggest that man does not always have free will?  להרחבה, ראו הקשיית לבבות ותוכניות ה' ובחירה חופשית של המצרים.

• Divine deception? Twice in the early chapters of Shemot, Hashem seems to command the nation to deceive Paroh and/or the Egyptians. Hashem tells Moshe to ask Paroh for only a "דרך שלשת ימים"? in the Wilderness, while His real intent is for them to leave for good. Later, he instructs the nation to פיצויים לעבדות וניצול מצרים from their Egyptian neighbors even though the objects are not to be returned.  How is such seeming duplicity to be understood?
  
• Nature of prophecy – Who merits the ability to prophesy?  Must one be chosen by God, or can one train one's self to receive Divine inspiration?  How did Moshe's prophecy compare to others? ראו התנאים הנצרכים לנבואה, ודעת רמב"ם בעשרת הדברים: ישירות מהקב"ה או דרך משה?.¹³
• Nature of miracles – Miracles abound in Sefer Shemot, from the ten plagues to the splitting of the sea, water-spouting rocks, and heavenly manna.  How are these to be understood?  Are they purely supernatural phenomenon or does Hashem bring miracles by harnessing the laws of nature? ראו שְׂלָו – דג או עוף?, המכות – דרך טבע או נס?, וקריעת ים סוף – ניסי או טבעי?, ולדיון כללי בנושא, ראו ניסים.
• Prophetic autonomy – How much autonomy does a prophet have? Is he simply Hashem's mouthpiece, or is he allowed to act on his own? Is it possible for him to speak on his own initiative and to then attribute that speech back to Hashem? Can he declare a miracle on his own and expect that nature will be overturned at his word? These questions come up numerous times in Sefer Shemot as Moshe מדבר בשם ה'¹⁴ או מצהיר על נסים,¹⁵ בלי צו ה' מפורש בפסוקים. 
  
• Vicarious punishment?  The verse "פֹּקֵד עֲוֹן אָבוֹת עַל בָּנִים" appears to suggest that, at least in certain circumstances, Hashem allows innocent children to be punished while their sinful parents get away scot-free. How does this manifest Divine justice?  Is there any other way of understanding the verse?  When, if ever, is collective punishment justified?  Can the same reasoning apply to vicarious punishment? ראו האם ה' פֹּקֵד עֲוֹן אָבֹת עַל בָּנִים?.
  
• Troubling laws – Certain laws, taken at face value, sometimes trouble modern readers who view them as unjust.  For example, the Torah puts forth a principle of "measure for measure" punishment as the penalty for certain forms of physical assault, declaring that one exacts an ""עין תחת עין"".  Is this the ultimate form of justice, or is it "cruel and unusual" punishment? How should the command to מחיית עמלק be understood?  What was so terrible about the attack that we are directed to obliterate an entire nation?

Dating and Chronological Issues

The dating and chronology of several stories in Sefer Shemot is disputed:

• אורך גלות מצרים – Commentators disagree regarding the length of Israel's stay in Egypt, with opinions ranging from 210 to 430 years.  The disagreement relates to the apparent contradictions between verses which speak of 400 or 430 years and others which speak of just four generations.
• כרונולוגיה – שמות י"ח – Sources disagree regarding the timing of almost every event in Shemot 18, including Yitro's arrival in Sinai, his advice to Moshe, the implementation of that advice, and Yitro's departure. Some ramifications of the different approaches include whether or not Moshe's children participated in the Revelation at Sinai, the dating of the Decalogue, Yitro's motivations and religious identity, and which commandments were given at Marah.
• מטרת המשכן – While the commands to build the Mishkan are elaborated upon in Parshiyot Terumah and Tezaveh, before the Sin of the Golden Calf, they are implemented only afterwards. As a result, commentators disagree regarding when the command was given, with some taking the verses at face value and others positing achronology.  The difference of opinion impacts greatly on how one understands the מטרת המשכן.
• בחירת הכהנים והלויים – Parashat Tetzaveh opens with the directive to consecrate Aharon and his sons, suggesting that they were selected to serve as priests before the Sin of the Golden Calf. However, דברים י':ח' suggests that both the Priests and Levites were chosen only in the aftermath of the sin. How are these verses to be reconciled?  When were each of the Levites and Priests chosen, and what does this suggest about why they specifically were selected for these tasks?

Ancient Near East

• Egyptian background  – Several aspects of the Exodus narrative allude to Egyptian culture, beliefs, or practices and might be seen as a reaction against them.  ראו שעבוד מצרים והרקע המצרי for how the phrases "יָד חֲזָקָה" and "כָּבֵד לֵב" as well as the choice of plagues might all be intended to mock Paroh and the Egyptian gods.
• Hero legends – Numerous legends from both the ancient and classical periods share the motif of a hero being abandoned at birth, recalling the story of Moshe's infancy.  The Mesopotamian legend of Sargon is perhaps one of the closest parallels.  What does a comparison of the two stories reveal about how the Torah views its leaders and what prerequisites it requires of them? ראו הולדת משה ואגדת סרגון.
• Law codes – How does the Torah's legal system compare to other ancient near eastern law codes?  Where do they overlap; where does Torah pave a new path?  Most importantly, what might a comparison reveal about the different underlying values and principles of the cultures, and their different conceptions of justice and punishment? להרחבה, ראו התורה וחוקי מזרח הקדמון.

¹ It includes descriptions of the enslavement, Moshe's appointment by Hashem, his negotiations with Paroh and the ensuing plagues, and finally, the Exodus and the miracle of the Splitting of the Sea.

² It begins with the Revelation at Sinai and ends with the building of the Tabernacle.

³ While the first section takes place in Egypt, the transition unit occurs en route in the Wilderness, and the final chapters take place while the nation is camped at Mt. Sinai.

⁴ While the first section focuses mainly on the interactions between Paroh and Moshe (and their respective nations), the second two speak of the relationship between Israel, Hashem and Moshe.

⁵ Eusebius cites Origen statment that this was the name used by the Jews. Its earliest appearance in Rabbinic sources is in בראשית רבה ג':ה' וס"ד:ח'.

⁶ This is also the book's name in the Septuagint, and this influenced the Christian tradition.

⁷ This name is based on the appearance of the term in שמות כ"ד:ז' (וראו רש"י שם). Most commentators, however, identify "ספר הברית" as only a smaller section of the book (שמות י"ט-כ"ג או שמות כ"א-כ"ג).

⁸ If the Exodus is the main focus of the book, the subsequent events may be viewed as merely its aftermath. Conversely, if the Covenant is seen as the core, the story of the Exodus can be seen as merely an enabling prelude. This latter possibility is essentially the view adopted by ר' דוד צבי הופמןשמות הקדמהשמות הקדמהאודות ר' דוד צבי הופמן.

⁹ דפים אחרים שנוגעים בנושא זה הינם: איפה במצרים גרו היהודים?, למה לגור בארץ גושן?, מטרות שעבוד מצרים, מטרת מכות מצרים, ומטרת פסח מצרים.

¹⁰ ראו רשב"םשמות ט"ז:ד'אודות ר' שמואל בן מאיר who discusses how the manna trained the people towards dependence on God, וראו רש"ר הירששמות ט"ו:כ"השמות ט"ז:ב'אודות ר' שמשון רפאל הירש who points to the trials and miracles as providing proof of Hashem's providence.

¹¹ ראו שיטת רלב"ג גם ב"כבד פה וכבד לשון" של משה.

¹² In other words, must the Torah's laws represent an ideal and be inherently valuable, or might they simply be addressing human needs and nature?

¹³ ראו גם ייחודו של משה – האותות והמופתים, though this topic does not focus on issues in Sefer Shemot itself.

¹⁴ See Shemot 10 where Moshe, apparently on his own initiative, announces the Plague of Locusts in Hashem's name, Shemot 11 where he, independently, proclaims in the name of Hashem the plague of firstborns, and Shemot 32 where he invokes Divine authority and tells the Levites to kill all those who worshiped the Golden Calf (despite the text never sharing the existence of such a command).

¹⁵ See Shemot 8 where Moshe promises Paroh that the plague of frogs will cease at his requested time despite Hashem never directing him to make such a promise.  See also Shemot 16 where Moshe declares to the people that Hashem will provide them with meat, even though Hashem had mentioned only "bread".