Overview – Sefer Yonah/0

Overview – Sefer Yonah

Structure of the Book

Sefer Yonah is a neatly structured book, dividing into two halves which are to some extent symmetrical in content, as illustrated in the Table in the pane to the right.

• Chapters 1-2 detail Yonah's flight from his mission and its consequences, while Chapters 3-4 detail his fulfillment of his mission and its aftermath.
• Each unit opens with Hashem's call and the prophet's disobedience or compliance.¹
• This is followed by a description of people in danger of destruction whose ensuing actions and cries to God lead to their salvation.
• Both units end with a focus on the prophet Yonah who prays (in one case for salvation, and in the other for death) and is answered with miraculous messages.

For further discussion of the book's structure, see Structure – Sefer Yonah.

Historical Background

Sefer Yonah itself does not provide enough information to allow the reader to place it within a larger historical framework.² However, many commentators³ associate Yonah with the Yonah b. Amitai mentioned in Melakhim II 14:25 who prophesied during the reign of Yerovam II. If so, Yonah prophesied at a time when Assyria was one of the strongest powers in the Ancient Near East.  Within just a few decades of Yerovam's reign, Assyria exiles Israel and decimates Judah.  Sefer Yonah, however, makes no mention of any of this.  It never even draws a connection between Nineveh and Assyria, suggesting that these facts are perhaps not crucial for a proper understanding of the book's main messages.

Themes

Repentance

I. Character transformations – Much of the book of Yonah touches in some way on the themes of second chances, repentance, and return to God. Each of the main characters embark on a process of change, though their degree of success is debatable:

• The Ninevites – The Ninevites' actions are perhaps the most obvious example of penitence in the book.  At first glance, the comprehensive nature of their repentance appears impressive. All join in fasting and donning of sackcloth: young and old, human and animal. Yet, the very inclusion of animals, who are incapable of reflection and change, casts the sincerity of their repentance into question. How should their repentance be evaluated? See The Repentance of Nineveh for opposing views.
• Yonah – Yonah clearly changes his ways from Chapter 1 to Chapter 3, moving from disobedience to compliance. Yet, his distress over Hashem's saving of Nineveh in Chapter 4 makes one question whether this change in deed was also accompanied by a fundamental change in outlook.  Did Yonah sincerely repent and regret his initial actions or did he head to Nineveh from lack of other options, forced by the Word of God?  See discussion in Yonah's Prayer and Why Did Yonah Disobey Hashem.
• The Sailors – Though the boatmen are not presented as having sinned and being in need of repentance,⁴ they, too, might undergo a transformation in the story.   As Chapter 1 advances, they move progressively closer to Hashem.  This is highlighted by the usage of the guiding word "ירא" in verses 5, 10 and 16.⁵ At first the sailors' "fear" leads them to pray to their foreign gods.  By the end of the chapter, they instead "fear Hashem exceedingly".⁶  Use the Tanakh Lab to explore related forms of the word "ירא" and other guiding words which might shed light on the sailors' spiritual growth.

II. What does it mean to repent? The book also raises the more fundamental question of what true repentance entails. [See The Repentance of Nineveh.]

• Deeds vs. Cries – The Ninevites express their remorse through outward signs of penitence, but also actively change their previous violent ways. What is the relative value of each?  Is there inherent worth in external signs of submission or should these only be a means to an end?
• See Mishnah Taanit 2:1Taanit 2:1About the Mishna which learns from Yonah 3:11, "וַיַּרְא הָאֱלֹהִים אֶת מַעֲשֵׂיהֶם כִּי שָׁבוּ מִדַּרְכָּם הָרָעָה" that Hashem has no desire for fasting and sackcloth without change of behavior.
• This theme that true change, not beating of fists, is what is desired by God, is prominent elsewhere in Tanakh as well. Compare Yonah 3-4:2 with Yoel 2:12-18, noting both the parallel language and message.  See also Yeshayahu 58:4-7.
• Man vs. God – Commentators debate whether or not the Ninevite forsook idolatry as part of their repentance campaign and how this affects the quality of their repentance.  Must Teshuvah (return or repentance) by definition include a "return" to God? To what extent is repentance and aversion of punishment contingent on belief?
• Abarbanel Yonah 3:1Yonah 3:9Yonah 4:1About R. Yitzchak Abarbanelassumes that the people did not change their beliefs and presents Yonah as questioning the effectiveness of such repentance, claiming that a "penitent idolator" is somewhat of an oxymoron.
• Hoil MosheHoil MosheYonah Conclusion, in contrast, claims that Hashem does not hold it against other nations if they are not monotheists, caring more about how they behave in the interpersonal sphere.

III. Repentance and Israel – Though the Nation of Israel is not mentioned anywhere in the book, RadakYonah 1:1About R. David Kimchi suggests that the entire book was recorded to serve as chastisement to them specifically.  Israel, who ignores the words of dozens of prophets, should learn from the Ninevites who change their ways after but one encounter!⁷

Mercy vs. Justice

I. Mercy on Other Nations – Several commentators suggest that the purpose of the book is to demonstrate that Hashem has mercy on all his creations, not just the Nation of Israel.  Do you agree?

• See the Hoil MosheYonah ConclusionAbout R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi who develops the idea most extensively,⁸ writing: "נוכל להוציא מסיפור קורות יונה... שאלהי ישראל אינו משתדל לטובת עם סגולתו בלבד, ומניח יתר גויי הארץ ביד שעם, רק טובת כל צאצאי אדם הוא מבקש".‏‎⁹

II. Salvation or Punishment: Yonah in the fish – After Yonah is thrown overboard, he is swallowed by a fish. Is the fish a manifestation of Hashem's mercy or a vehicle for further punishment and chastisement? Was Yonah deserving of salvation or rebuke?

• How does Yonah view his stay inside? When he prays, does he offer thanksgiving, feeling that the he has been saved, or does he pray for deliverance, feeling endangered?  See Yonah's Prayer for discussion.

III. Mercy or Justice:  Why was Nineveh saved? Yonah 3:11 implies that Hashem overturned the decree of destruction against Nineveh due to the people's repentance. Hashem's words to Yonah at the end of Chapter 4, in contrast, imply that the city was spared due to Hashem's mercy.¹⁰

• Which was the real reason for the city's salvation? Was this an act of justice, as their deeds no longer deserved punishment, or was this an act of mercy?  See The Repentance of Nineveh.

IV. Yonah's complaint: Is mercy unjust?  Chapter 4 opens with Yonah complaining about Hashem's attributes of mercy.  Why, though, is he upset that Hashem is a merciful God?  Why does he oppose the salvation of Nineveh? [See Why Did Yonah Disobey Hashem for discussion.]

• Several modern scholars¹¹  suggest that Yonah disagreed fundamentally with Hashem's system of justice.¹² He believed that justice requires that everyone receive their due, and atoning for or regretting one's actions should not erase the need for retribution.
• This position makes one question: What is the proper balance between the relative values of mercy and justice? When does strict justice take the fore and when is mercy more important?
• To see how Yonah's outlook on sin and punishment compares to that of other leaders, see Avraham and Yonah and Eliyahu and Yonah.

Providence

I. Hashem's control over nature – Throughout the book, Hashem manifests how nature is subservient to His will. He brings the storm and stills it, appoints a fish to swallow and then vomit out Yonah, sprouts the gourd, but then sends the worm and wind to kill it.  The message is clear: it is in Hashem's hands to save or destroy and nature is but a tool to accomplish His bidding.

• Go to the Tanakh Lab to explore the most significant keywords in the book when compared to the rest of Tanakh.  How might the guiding word "וימן" highlight the theme of Hashem's providence? Explore the usage of the root "טול" in Chapter 1 as well. How does it similarly express this idea?  What does it suggest about the interplay between Divine providence and free will?

II. Free will for humans – Alongside the emphasis on Hashem's control, the book also highlights man's free choice. Each of the figures in the book is given the choice to decide how to react to his given circumstances.  The one possible exception is Yonah. To what extent does a prophet have the free will to ignore Hashem's call, to refuse His bidding?  How much autonomy does he have to decide how or if to rebuke?

• Does Yonah's failed attempt to die at sea suggest that he was "forced" to prophecy to Nineveh or is his very flight proof that he had free choice? See Yonah's Prayer.
• For discussion of the more general question of prophetic autonomy (not related to Yonah specifically), see Prophetic Actions Without Explicit Divine Sanction.

Selfishness and Selflessness

I.  Yonah's flight – The most central question raised by the book revolves around the reasons for Yonah's disobedience.¹³  Does Yonah flee from before God for selfish or selfless reasons? How does each possibility reflect on the prophet? Is it possible that Hashem would choose a prophet who put his own interests before those of his audience?  See Why Did Yonah Disobey Hashem for discussion.

• Self-interest – See TanchumaVayikra 8About the Tanchuma and Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer10About Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer who assert that Yonah feared that when the people of Nineveh repented, Hashem's decree of destruction would be overturned and he would be accused of being a false prophet.¹⁴
• Patriotism – Mekhilta12:1About Mekhilta DeRabbi Yishmael Shemot, RadakYonah 1:1About R. David Kimchi, and AbarbanelYonah 1:3Yonah 3:1Yonah 3:9Yonah 4:1About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel, in contrast, assert that Yonah was motivated by altruistic reasons. Yonah was concerned lest the immediate repentance of Nineveh cast the recalcitrant Israel in a bad light.  Alternatively, knowing that Assyria was destined to exile the ten tribes, Yonah was loathe to be the vehicle through which Israel's enemy was saved from destruction.¹⁵

II. The Sailors and Yonah – In Chapter 1, how do the actions of the mariners and Yonah compare?. Where does each of the characters put themselves at the fore and where do they think of the other?  How does the foil affect your view of each set of characters?

Biblical Parallels

Comparing stories with other similar narratives in Tanakh prompts close readings of each text, often yielding new insights as each story sheds light on the other.

• Kayin and Yonah – What does this unlikely pair have in common?  While Yonah casts himself out from before God, Kayin is cast out by God. How does each react in the aftermath and what might we learn from the comparison?
• Avraham and Yonah – Avraham argues with Hashem about His lack of justice with regards to Sedom, while Yonah cries out about His abundant mercy with regards to the salvation of Nineveh. How do these two leaders, one a champion of "חסד", the other of "אמת", compare?
• Eliyahu and Yonah – Of all prophets in Tanakh, Eliyahu and Yonah are the only two who appear to successfully bring their audience to repent. Surprisingly, each emerges from the successful mission distraught to the point of requesting death!  What leads each to his despair?
• Sefer Yonah and the Sin of the Calf – The declaration at the end of Yonah 3, "וַיִּנָּחֶם הָאֱלֹהִים עַל הָרָעָה אֲשֶׁר דִּבֶּר לַעֲשׂוֹת לָהֶם" echoes Shemot 32:14, when Hashem forgives the nation after the Sin of the Golden Calf. The direct allusion suggests that the text is inviting a comparison between the two stories.  How are they both similar and different and what is the parallel meant to teach?
• Yonah's Prayer and Tehillim – Yonah's prayer abounds with phrases that recall  similar psalms of petition and thanksgiving in Tehillim. For a list of parallels see here.

Theological or Philosophical  Issues

The book raises several theological issues:

• Prophetic infallibility – Does Hashem choose only messengers that will do His bidding exactly as commanded, or might they commit errors and sins as well? How can Yonah flee God's call? See Why Did Yonah Disobey Hashem.
• Repentance – How does repentance work? Does it serve to erase both sin and punishment, or only the former? The word "תשובה" implies a return; does this mean a return to Hashem or to one's own pre-sin status?¹⁶ Finally, does repentance that stems from fear of punishment have the same status as that which derives from simple recognition of right and wrong? See Why Did Yonah Disobey Hashem and The Repentance of Nineveh
• Forgiveness – What factors play a role in forgiveness? Must it be a response to change, or might it stem from mercy or love? Can forgiveness erase the need for any punishment? See Why Did Yonah Disobey Hashem and The Repentance of Nineveh.
• Prayer – How does prayer work? Can prayer change Hashem's will? If one requests something of Hashem, why should He acquiesce? To what extent is prayer meant to affect Hashem and to what extent is it meant to change the one praying?
  

Connection to Yom HaKippurim

The book's themes are all intricately connected to those of Yom HaKippuirm.  See above for discussion and topics related to:

• Repentance and change
• The interplay between mercy and justice
• Hashem's providence
• Obedience

Yonah and Art

Comparing the Biblical text with artcitic representations thereof often encourages a closer reading of the original, opening one's eyes to nuances and ambiguities in the text.

• See Yonah and the Fish in Art.

¹ The parallel is emphasized by the use of almost verbatim language in 1:1-3 and 3:1-3.

² No known historical events are mentioned or alluded to in the story. The king of Nineveh is not named, making it impossible to identify him with any known figure.  Even Yonah is an unknown, as the text provides no identifying information about him besides his name.

³ See, for example, Ibn EzraYonah First Commentary 1:2Yonah First Commentary 1:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra, RadakYonah 1:1About R. David Kimchi and Ibn KaspiYonah 1:1About R. Yosef ibn Kaspi on Yonah 1:1.

⁴ The text makes it clear that it is Yonah's deeds, not theirs, which are responsible for the storm at sea.

⁵ Verse 5 reads, "וַיִּירְאוּ הַמַּלָּחִים וַיִּזְעֲקוּ אִישׁ אֶל אֱלֹהָיו". In verse 10, their fear grows, and is now connected to Hashem: "וַיִּירְאוּ הָאֲנָשִׁים יִרְאָה גְדוֹלָה... כִּי יָדְעוּ הָאֲנָשִׁים כִּי מִלִּפְנֵי י״י הוּא בֹרֵחַ". In verse 16, they progress to stand in great awe of Hashem and even begin to worship Him: "וַיִּירְאוּ הָאֲנָשִׁים יִרְאָה גְדוֹלָה אֶת י״י וַיִּזְבְּחוּ זֶבַח לַי״י".

⁶ See RashiYonah 1:16Yonah 2:9About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki (following Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer) and R. Yosef KaraYonah 1:16Yonah 2:9About R. Yosef Kara who learn from both this verse and 2:9 that they converted.

⁷ See TanchumaVayikra 8About the Tanchuma and others in its wake, that this itself was the reason that Yonah fled his mission.  Knowing that the Ninevites were likely to repent and thereby cast the intransigent Israel in a negative light for not doing the same, he tried to avoid relaying God's word.

⁸ Cf. RadakYonah 1:1About R. David Kimchi.

⁹ See also R. Yehoshua ibn Shuaib who writes:  "באה נבואת יונה בן אמיתי להורות כי השם יתעלה רחמיו על כל מעשיו, ואפילו אומות העולם, כל שכן בישראל" (דרשה ליום הכיפורים, "דרשות על התורה" (קראקא, של"ג):צ"ג).

¹⁰ See Abarbanel who notes this contrast in his fifth question on Yonah 3.

¹¹ See, for example, R"E Ben-Menachem, Da'at Mikra Commentary to Yonah, (1973): 7-8 and Prof. U. Simon, Mikra LeYisrael, Commentary to Yonah (1992).

¹² See Why Did Yonah Disobey Hashem and the discussion below that according to other commentators Yonah was not really upset about Hashem's mercy, only about the salvation of Nineveh. He was worried either about how this would affect his own reputation or how the survival of Israel's enemy would affect the nation.

¹³ One approach, not related to selfishness/ selflessness, is discussed above - Yonah's theological problem with the notion of repentance.

¹⁴ See also R. Eliezer of Beaugency who similarly claims that Yonah was motivated by self interest.  He suggests that Yonah was certain that the people of Nineveh would not repent and that Hashem would nonetheless forgive them, thus rendering Yonah's efforts futile and irrelevant. Being old and feeble, he preferred that Hashem send someone in his place.

¹⁵ This is Abarbanel's position.

¹⁶ See Abarbanel discussed above.