Philosophy:Theodicy – צדיק ורע לו/2

Theodicy – צדיק ורע לו

Exegetical Approaches

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Just Compensation in This World

Everyone gets their appropriate due in this world.  Though it sometimes seems as if innocent people are being punished or wicked people are being rewarded, this is only because outsiders often misevaluate the righteousness of a person, or misunderstand the nature of their compensation:

Misperception of Righteousness

A person with a reputation for wickedness or righteousness might not always be what they seem. Thus, wrong-doers might have merits that justify their rewards, while the righteous might have committed sins which justify their punishment.

Sources:Bavli BerakhotBerakhot 7aBerakhot 7bAbout the Bavli, 1st opinion in RadakHoshea 14:10About R. David Kimchi,  rejected opinion in RalbagMilchamot HaShem 4:2Milchamot HaShem 4:5Milchamot HaShem 4:6Milchamot HaShem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom,¹

The terms צדיק and רשע – R. SaadiaHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3About R. Saadia Gaon points out that people are viewed as good or evil based on the majority of their actions.  Thus a "צדיק" might still have sinned, and a "רשע" might have done some good.²

Why is righteousness / wickedness misperceived? People misevaluate others for several reasons:

• Unaware of deeds – As people are not privy to all the actions of others, they are not always aware of their faults or merits.  Thus, RambanTorat HaAdam Shaar HaGemulAbout R. Moshe b. Nachman posits that suffering might result from accidental misdeeds of which the righteous themselves might not even be cognizant. Chovot HaLevavot4:3About R. Bachya ibn Pakuda adds that the sins might be ones of omission,³ not apparent to outsiders.  In addition many deeds (both positive and negative) are done in private, or involve thoughts rather than actions.
• Ignore human potential – Ralbag⁴ suggests that people do not always take an individual's potential into account when evaluating their deeds.  If a person is righteous but had the potential to do significantly more than he did, he is not as deserving as he seems.⁵ Similarly, if a wicked person is born without a certain capacity for good, he should not be held culpable when he does not have many good deeds to his name.

Verses in Torah which promise retribution or reward – These verses refer to recompense in this world, rather than the World to Come.  This is supported by the fact that most of the verses relate to physical rewards such as rain, crops, victory over enemies and the like. This fits with this approach, which agrees that people are blessed or cursed in their lifetime, just as the verses promise.

Hashem's providence: individual or collective – According to this position, there is not only collective, but also individual providence in this world. This is supported by the various verses which speak of individual retribution such as Devarim's promise that a "man or woman" who turns away from Hashem will receive the curses of Parashat Ki Tavo.

World to Come – The existence of a World to Come does not preclude justice in this world.  Since one's actions were done in the physical world, they are requited there as well.

Afflictions of love – This position could agree with Rambam who appears to totally reject the concept of afflictions of love,⁶ or with Ramban who claims that even such afflictions serve to purify for some degree of sin.  He explains that they are considered "afflictions of love" since they come to erase inadvertent sins which are not severe enough to require punishment in the World to Come, but nonetheless need to be atoned.⁷

The Suffering of Iyyov – This approach matches that of Elifaz and the other friends in Sefer Iyyov, who try to convince Iyyov that, despite his righteous reputation, his afflictions must be punishment for sin. However, the opening of the book suggests that Iyyov was free of sin, and even if he had committed minor offenses it is hard to see how they could justify the severity of his suffering. This position might respond that Iyyov's questioning of Hashem after his suffering proved his lack of righteousness.  Nonetheless, the fact that Hashem rebukes Iyyov's friends suggests that their words to Iyyov were misguided.

Exile and enslavement in Egypt – This approach would maintain that both the exile and enslavement were punishment for sins of the nation.  [See Purposes of the Egyptian Bondage for discussion of the possible sins that were committed.] It would further suggest that each individual slave was worked more or less, in accordance with their deeds.

Prophetic complaints – If there really is no such thing as "צדיק ורע לו", why is it that the prophets complain about the phenomenon? 

• As prophets are human, they are not always privy to man's every action and might make assumptions about righteousness, just like laymen, leading them to question Hashem's justice.
• Ramban explains that even though the prophets intellectually knew that there is ultimate justice, in the moment of suffering, they too complained about their fate.

Collective punishment – According to this position, there is no collective punishment, but rather each person is punished only for their own sins. When the collective appears to be punished in Tanakh, that is because all the people affected are really culpable, either for the same sin, or for individual crimes of their own.  For elaboration, see Collective Punishment.

"פֹּקֵד עֲוֺן אָבוֹת עַל בָּנִים"

Divine Justice

Misperception of Retribution

What appears to be a reward or a punishment might actually be the opposite. As such, what is construed as unjust retribution is really not so.

Sources:rejected opinion in RalbagMilchamot HaShem 4:5Milchamot HaShem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom, ShadalShemot 20:4About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto,⁸

Why is compensation misperceived?

• Physical goods are not true rewards – RambamMoreh Nevukhim 3:23About R. Moshe b. Maimon suggests that people assume that happiness comes from physical good (such as health, children and wealth), when in reality these pale in comparison to the ultimate good: knowledge of Hashem.⁹  Thus, an outsider might consider a צדיק who lives in poverty to be suffering, when in fact that individual is on such a spiritual level that they simply do not regard physical suffering as suffering at all.
• Missing full picture – Most other commentators suggest, instead, that compensation is often misconstrued since people tend to only see part of a person's retribution:

• Delayed punishment / reward – The illusion of injustice might be caused by the fact that Hashem does not always give recompense immediately after one commits a sin or does a good deed,¹⁰ making it difficult to see how every action is paid for measure for measure¹¹ . Shadal points out, however, that if one were to look at an individual's retribution over the span of a lifetime, one would see that it matches his deeds.¹²
• Unknown goal of retribution – A person might receive what appears to be a reprieve in punishment, or even a reward, but in reality the point is to ultimately cause more damage later. For example, R. Saadia claims that Paroh did not die at the beginning of the cycle of plagues to ensure that he suffer through all and eventually drown in the sea.  Similarly, the wicked might get a small blessing, only so as to prevent them from receiving a much greater undeserved reward.¹³ The inverse is also true; the righteous sometimes suffer slight hardships to prevent bigger catastrophes,¹⁴ or enable greater rewards.¹⁵ 
• Only external compensation apparent – Often a person's emotional well being is less apparent to an outsider than his physical rewards, leading to the misconception that "רשע וטוב לו" while in fact the individual is suffering emotional turmoil. Thus, R"Y Albo4:74:124:13About R. Yosef Albo suggests that though people might envy the wealthy, having much property is more of a curse than a reward, as Chazal say, "מרבה נכסים מרבה דאגה".‎¹⁶

Verses in Torah which promise retribution or reward – These verses refer to recompense in this world, which are meted out to both the collective and individuals, as they deserve.  As most of the verses speak of physical good, the Rambam's claim that true reward is intellectual in nature is somewhat difficult.

Hashem's providence: individual or collective? According to this approach, there is both individual and collective providence in this world.

World to Come – Hashem does not wait for the World to Come to mete out retribution, but punishes and rewards where the deeds were done.

The suffering of Iyyov

• Rambam explains that once Iyyov attained a strong understanding of Hashem he himself acknowledged that true happiness is not related to physical good, but to recognition of God. As such, any physical harm that had come to him was insignificant. As evidence he points to Iyyov's words, "לְשֵׁמַע אֹזֶן שְׁמַעְתִּיךָ וְעַתָּה עֵינִי רָאָתְךָ עַל כֵּן אֶמְאַס וְנִחַמְתִּי עַל עָפָר וָאֵפֶר".
• This position might also explain that the book ends with Iyyov not only regaining all he lost, but being rewarded with more than he had at the outset.  This proves that over one's lifetime Hashem compensates for any suffering, evening out the score before death. However, one might question if the anguish caused by loss is really undone when that loss is replaced (even if it is replaced by something more valuable).¹⁷

Exile and enslavement in Egypt – This position could suggest that the exile and bondage actually had many hidden benefits: preventing assimilation, instilling empathy, fostering unity and erasing class distinctions. In addition, they served to purify the people so they would merit to receive the Torah and the Land of Israel.¹⁸  However, it is questionable if the positives gained by the bondage outweighed the negatives.  Moreover, many of these benefits relate to the nation as a whole, rather than to individuals, leaving the question of individual justice in its place.¹⁹

Prophetic complaints – R. ChananelShemot 5:22About R. Bachya b. Asher and. R. Saadia GaonHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 8:2HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9:1About R. Saadia Gaon. suggests that when Moshe and Yirmeyahu question Hashem regarding why the righteous continue to suffer while the wicked prosper,²⁰ Hashem reassures them that everyone will get their just compensation in the near future,²¹ and that the present delay will allow for a doubling of both the punishment of the wicked and reward of the righteous.²² This accords with this general approach, that compensation does come in this world and what originally might appear as unfair is evened out later.

Divine justice – This approach believes that all that Hashem does is just, and everyone ultimately gets their due.

Afflictions of love – This position might understand afflictions of love to refer to those afflictions which contain a hidden good or enable a person to merit rewards later in life.  Thus, afflictions which bring a person closer to Hashem or prevent him from otherwise sinning would fall in this category.  Though they might initially appear to be a case of "צדיק ורע לו", they are actually "לטוב לו".

Difficulties with this approach – There are certain hardships which are very difficult to understand as being blessings in disguise.  What hidden good did an individual who suffered and died at the hands of the Nazis receive?

Just Compensation in the World to Come

People do not get their just compensation in this world.  It is only in the World to Come that Hashem gives everyone their appropriate due. The position subdivides regarding the reason why true compensation is delayed:

Natural Order and General Providence

Since the world is usually run via natural order and deeds are compensated according to the majority, at times an individual receives undeserved retribution.

Sources:Kuzari3:196:1About R. Yehuda HaLevi, RambanTorat HaAdam Shaar HaGemulDevarim 11:13IyyovAbout R. Moshe b. Nachman,²³ RalbagMilchamot HaShem 4:2Milchamot HaShem 4:5Milchamot HaShem 4:6Milchamot HaShem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom, RanBereshit 15:13Derashot HaRan 8About R. Nissim Gerondi,²⁴ R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:2Or Hashem 2:2:4Or Hashem 2:2:4R. Chasdai CrescasAbout R. Chasdai Crescas,²⁵ Sefer HaIkkarim4:74:124:13About R. Yosef Albo,²⁶ AbarbanelDevarim 4:15-24Devarim 32:1About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel,

Natural order and Divine providence – These sources all point out that this world is generally run via natural law,²⁷ and not individual Divine providence.²⁸ Thus, in this world, individuals might be harmed by, or benefit from, the vicissitudes of nature unrelated to their particular merits.²⁹ Only a person who is so righteous that he merits Divine intervention to overturn nature will be protected from undeserved chance disasters.

Sharing the fate of the collective – A corollary of the above is the idea that since in this world, general rather than individual providence takes precedence, individuals might share the fate of the many, even if undeserving.  Thus, if the majority of the nation deserves punishment, the few righteous individuals within will suffer as well.³⁰

The World to Come – This position might view this world and the World to Come as one continuum.  Thus, it is not unjust that actions done in this world be compensated only in the next world.

Hashem's providence – According to this approach, Hashem provides on a national level, and not for each individual person.

Promises of reward and punishment – This position could suggest that the reward spoken about in the verses refer to national rewrads, not individual.  The nature

Iyyov – R. Saadia understands Iyyov's suffering to be a test,³¹ and as we read at the end of the book, Iyyov got an abundance of good at the end of his life.³²

Purposes of the Egyptian bondage – The Ran view as afflictions of love.

"פֹּקֵד עֲוֺן אָבוֹת עַל בָּנִים"

World to come – This approach is based heavily on the idea of retribution being given in the world to come, however, the whole concept of the world to come is not explicit in the Torah at all.³³

Afflictions of love – This approach understands that Hashem sometimes afflicts out of love to the person in order to multiply their reward, and not as a punishment over a sin.

Immediate punishment of the sinner in Devarim 7

Individual Providence and Afflictions of Love

Targum OnkelosDevarim 7:10About Targum Onkelos, Sifre Devarim11:26About Sifre Devarim, YerushalmiChagigah 2:1About the Yerushalmi, BavliShabbat 30bTaanit 11aKiddushin 39bKiddushin 40bChulin 142aAbout the Bavli, Targum Pseudo-JonathanDevarim 7:10About Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, R. Saadia GaonHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3About R. Saadia Gaon, Chovot HaLevavot4:3About R. Bachya ibn Pakuda, RashiDevarim 32:4Berakhot 5aAbout R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, Kuzari3:196:1About R. Yehuda HaLevi, RadakYechezkel 18:6Hoshea 14:10About R. David Kimchi, RambanTorat HaAdam Shaar HaGemulDevarim 11:13About R. Moshe b. Nachman, RalbagMilchamot HaShem 4:2Milchamot HaShem 4:5Milchamot HaShem 4:6Milchamot HaShem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom, RanBereshit 15:13Derashot HaRan 8About R. Nissim Gerondi, R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:2Or Hashem 2:2:4Or Hashem 2:2:4R. Chasdai CrescasAbout R. Chasdai Crescas, Sefer HaIkkarim4:74:124:13About R. Yosef Albo, AbarbanelDevarim 4:15-24Devarim 32:1About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel, R. Avraham SabaTzeror HaMor Bereshit 23About R. Avraham Saba (Tzeror HaMor)

Just Compensation in the World to Come

People do not get their just compensation in this world. It is only in the World to Come that Hashem gives everyone their appropriate due. The position subdivides regarding the reason why true compensation is delayed:

Sources:Targum OnkelosDevarim 7:10About Targum Onkelos, Sifre Devarim11:26About Sifre Devarim, YerushalmiChagigah 2:1About the Yerushalmi, BavliShabbat 30bTaanit 11aKiddushin 39bKiddushin 40bChulin 142aAbout the Bavli, Targum Pseudo-JonathanDevarim 7:10About Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, R. Saadia GaonHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3About R. Saadia Gaon, Chovot HaLevavot4:3About R. Bachya ibn Pakuda, RashiDevarim 32:4Berakhot 5aAbout R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, Kuzari3:196:1About R. Yehuda HaLevi, RadakYechezkel 18:6Hoshea 14:10About R. David Kimchi, RambanTorat HaAdam Shaar HaGemulDevarim 11:13About R. Moshe b. Nachman, RalbagMilchamot HaShem 4:2Milchamot HaShem 4:5Milchamot HaShem 4:6Milchamot HaShem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom, RanBereshit 15:13Derashot HaRan 8About R. Nissim Gerondi, R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:2Or Hashem 2:2:4Or Hashem 2:2:4R. Chasdai CrescasAbout R. Chasdai Crescas, Sefer HaIkkarim4:74:124:13About R. Yosef Albo, AbarbanelDevarim 4:15-24Devarim 32:1About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel, R. Avraham SabaTzeror HaMor Bereshit 23About R. Avraham Saba (Tzeror HaMor)

Why isn't their compensation in this world?

• Natural order – Ralbag, Ran, R. Crescas and Abarbanel all point out that this world is generally run via natural law,³⁴ and not individual Divine providence.³⁵ Thus, in this world, individuals might be harmed by, or benefit from, the vicissitudes of nature unrelated to their particular merits.³⁶ Only a person who is so righteous that he merits Divine intervention to overturn nature will be protected from undeserved chance disasters.
• Part of the collective – A corollary of the above is the idea that since in this world, general rather than individual providence takes precedence, individuals might share the fate of the many, even if undeserving.  Thus, if the majority of the nation deserves punishment, the few righteous individuals within will suffer as well.³⁷
• Afflictions of love –
• Test – R. Saadia explains Hashem's purpose to be a test in order to publicize the commitment of the righteous man even with all the troubles he goes through, and seeing the unworthy retribution the wrongdoer received.  Hashem is testing the righteous man to see if he will continue to follow the right path even though he is compensated wrongly.  He knows they will tolerate the punishment they don't deserve, and later on in their life or in the world to come, He gives them an abundance of good. 
• Hashem is using the wicked man for a different purpose before he punishes him, such as to fight with a different nation.
• The righteous man is suffering over the sins of his generation, or of his ancestors, and not his own sins.

The World to Come – This position might view this world and the World to Come as one continuum.  Thus, it is not unjust that actions done in this world be compensated only in the next world.

Hashem's providence – According to this approach, Hashem provides on a national level, and not for each individual person.

Promises of reward and punishment – This position could suggest that the reward spoken about in the verses refer to national rewrads, not individual.  The nature

Iyyov – R. Saadia understands Iyyov's suffering to be a test,³⁸ and as we read at the end of the book, Iyyov got an abundance of good at the end of his life.³⁹

Purposes of the Egyptian bondage – The Ran view as afflictions of love.

"פֹּקֵד עֲוֺן אָבוֹת עַל בָּנִים"

World to come – This approach is based heavily on the idea of retribution being given in the world to come, however, the whole concept of the world to come is not explicit in the Torah at all.⁴⁰

Afflictions of love – This approach understands that Hashem sometimes afflicts out of love to the person in order to multiply their reward, and not as a punishment over a sin.

Immediate punishment of the sinner in Devarim 7

Not All Receive Just Compensation

People who do not merit Divine providence might not get just compensation.  As their lives are ruled by nature, sometimes rewards or punishments are given to the undeserving.

Sources:Rambam

¹ Other commentators, including R. Saadia GaonHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 8:2HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9:1About R. Saadia Gaon, Chovot HaLevavot4:3About R. Bachya ibn Pakuda, RambanTorat HaAdam Shaar HaGemulDevarim 11:13About R. Moshe b. Nachman, R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:2Or Hashem 2:2:4Or Hashem 2:2:4About R. Chasdai Crescas, Sefer HaIkkarim4:74:124:13About R. Yosef Albo and AbarbanelDevarim 32:1About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel also bring this approach, but only as a partial explanation for the phenomenon.

² See also Bavli Berakhot which differentiates between the "totally righteous / wicked" and those who are only partially righteous or wicked.

³ As an example he points  to someone who did not rebuke those who deserve punishment and help them to repent.

⁴ See also R. Crescas who makes the same point.

⁵ This fits with the idea that Hashem is extremely stringent with the righteous, punishing them harshly for even minor sins ( "ה' מדקדק עם חסידיו כחוט השערה").  According to Ralbag, since these individuals are extremely capable, the expectations are much higher.  A small misdemeanor for them is equivalent to a major crime for another.

⁶ Rambam claims that despite Chazal's claims in Berakhot 5a, the Torah never speaks of a concept of "afflictions of love".

⁷ He claims that in the time of the Mikdash a sin offering would have sufficed, but since its destruction, suffering serves as a replacement.

⁸ Other commentators such as RambamMoreh Nevukhim 3:23About R. Moshe b. Maimon, R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:2Or Hashem 2:2:4Or Hashem 2:2:4About R. Chasdai Crescas, R. Yosef Albo 4:74:124:13About R. Yosef Alboand R. Avraham SabaTzeror HaMor Bereshit 23About R. Avraham Saba (Tzeror HaMor) also bring this approach, but only as a partial explanation of the phenomenon.

⁹ This is how Rambam explains the ending of the Book of Iyyov, but it not his full explanation of the problem of evil in the world.

¹⁰ This would seem to go against the promise in Devarim 7:10, "וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר לְשֹׂנְאוֹ אֶל פָּנָיו יְשַׁלֶּם לוֹ."  This position would likely explain that the words "לֹא יְאַחֵר" mean that Hashem will pay back the sinner in this world, and not wait for the World to Come. 

¹¹ See Reggio's formulation, "לפעמים ראתה החכמה העליונה להחיש ולמהר עונש החוטא (ובודאי תהיה זאת לטובת הנענש) ולהאריך ולהמתין זמן רב בגמול הצדיקים (אשר מזה יקרה בעולם הזה מקרה צדיק ורע לו) לעומת מה שפעמים אחדות יאריך אפו לרשעים ולא יענישם מיד (אשר מזה יקרה רשע וטוב לו)". 

¹² Though a person might suffer a small hardship at some point, later they might receive a great blessing, evening things out.

¹³ See which tells of Eliyahu miraculously fixing the crumbling wall of a wicked individual's home so as to prevent the person from finding a valuable treasure that lay there, were he to fix it himself.

¹⁴ Thus, a person whose car breaks down causing him to miss a plane and a great business opportunity, might find out later that the plane crashed and his short term loss was actually a blessing in disguise.  On the spiritual plane, a hardship might cause someone to reflect on his deeds, preventing him from otherwise coming to sin.

¹⁵ For instance, a person might lose a job, only so that he will be available to accept a much better work opportunity later.

¹⁶ See also Kohelet 5:12, "עֹשֶׁר שָׁמוּר לִבְעָלָיו לְרָעָתוֹ".

¹⁷ It is not at all clear, for example, that a new child can really compensate for one that has died.

¹⁸  See Purposes of the Egyptian Bondage for discussion of each of these possibilities.

¹⁹ For instance, many Israelites died while still in bondage and never reaped the benefits which first occurred after redemption (such as receiving the Torah or the Land of Israel).

²⁰ See Shemot 5:22-23 and Yirmeyahu 12:1-2.

²¹ This is how R. Chananel and R. Saadia explain these specific instances. In general, however, they both speak not only of compensation later in this world, but also in the World to Come.

²² R. Chananel suggests that this is alluded to in Hashem's answer to Moshe, "עַתָּה תִרְאֶה אֲשֶׁר אֶעֱשֶׂה לְפַרְעֹה...". R. Saadia similarly suggests that Hashem's words in Yirmeyahu 12:7, "עָזַבְתִּי אֶת בֵּיתִי נָטַשְׁתִּי אֶת נַחֲלָתִי נָתַתִּי אֶת יְדִדוּת נַפְשִׁי בְּכַף אֹיְבֶיהָ" are a promise of harsh punishment in the future for those whom Yirmeyahu believed had been spared.

²³ Ramban combines this approach with the one below, pointing out that sometimes it is actually individual providence which leads one to get partial compensation in this world, with the purpose being to properly prepare one so that their soul will receive correct compensation in the next world.

²⁴ The Ran also speaks of afflictions of love as being a cause of undeserved suffering of the righteous in this world.  See approach below.

²⁵ Like his teacher, the Ran, R. Crescas also brings alternative understandings as to why not all get their just due in this world, pointing to afflictions of love amongst other factors.  See approach below..

²⁶ This is just one of several explanations brought by R. Yosef Albo. He also speaks of how aspects of individual providence might play a role in the delay of true retribution.

²⁷ They refer to this as the astronomical system (מערכת הכוכבים).

²⁸ The sources don't dispute the existence of individual providence, but assume that in this world natural order often supersedes it.  Though they disagree regarding the exact nature of such providence, they seem to concur that not all individuals merit it to the same degree. The more righteous one is (or the more in line with the active intellect), the more providence one will receive. According to Ralbag, this means that some people might not merit any individual providence at all.   Ramban similarly points out that only purely righteous or purely wicked people will merit miraculous intervention, while the majority of average people will be left to the ways of the world.

²⁹ The Ran points to Rava's statement in Moed KatanMoed Katan 28aAbout the Bavli that length of life and livelihood are dependent on the constellations rather than one's merits, as proven by the very different fates of Rabbah and R. Chisda despite their both being Torah giants.

³⁰ The Kuzari brings the example of a drought that is decreed upon a nation due to their wrongdoing.  Despite their righteousness, this will still affect the few believers living in the country. [As above, the only exceptions would be truly outstanding individuals who are miraculously saved, or are otherwise protected by Divine providence.] The inverse is true as well.  If a few wicked people live in a community of righteous people, they might benefit from the rewards given to the nation at large.

³¹ That seems to be the simple reading of the verses, that the Satan wanted to test Iyyov to see if he will continue to worship Hashem even with all his kids dying and his possessions taken.

³² See Iyyov 42:12, "וַי"י בֵּרַךְ אֶת אַחֲרִית אִיּוֹב מֵרֵאשִׁתוֹ".

³³ R. Chasdai Crescas accounts for this question by saying that the nation coming out of Eygpt knew about the world to come and there was no reason to explicate it.

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