Philosophy:Theodicy – צדיק ורע לו/2

Theodicy – צדיק ורע לו

Exegetical Approaches

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Just Compensation in This World

Everyone gets their appropriate due in this world.  Though it sometimes seems as if innocent people are being punished or wicked people are being rewarded, this is only because outsiders often misevaluate the righteousness of a person, or misunderstand the nature of their compensation:

Righteousness Misperceived

A person with a reputation for wickedness or righteousness might not always be what they seem. Thus, wrong-doers might have merits that justify their rewards, while the righteous might have committed sins which justify their punishment.

Sources:Bavli BerakhotBerakhot 7aBerakhot 7bAbout the Bavli, 1st opinion in RadakHoshea 14:10About R. David Kimchi,  rejected opinion in RalbagMilchamot HaShem 4:2Milchamot HaShem 4:5Milchamot HaShem 4:6Milchamot HaShem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom,¹

The terms צדיק and רשע – R. SaadiaHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3About R. Saadia Gaon points out that people are viewed as good or evil based on the majority of their actions.  Thus a "צדיק" might still have sinned, and a "רשע" might have done some good.²

Why is righteousness / wickedness misperceived? People misevaluate others for several reasons:

• Unaware of deeds – As people are not privy to all the actions of others, they are not always aware of their faults or merits.  Thus, RambanTorat HaAdam Shaar HaGemulAbout R. Moshe b. Nachman posits that suffering might result from accidental misdeeds of which the righteous themselves might not even be cognizant. Chovot HaLevavot4:3About R. Bachya ibn Pakuda adds that the sins might be ones of omission,³ not apparent to outsiders.  In addition many deeds (both positive and negative) are done in private, or involve thoughts rather than actions.
• Ignore human potential – Ralbag⁴ suggests that people do not always take an individual's potential into account when evaluating their deeds.  If a person is righteous but had the potential to do significantly more than he did, he is not as deserving as he seems.⁵ Similarly, if a wicked person is born without a certain capacity for good, he should not be held culpable when he does not have many good deeds to his name.
• Unaware of future – R. Saadia suggests that a person's punishment might be deferred since Hashem knows they are to repent later in life (at which point they will no longer be considered wicked).⁶ Humans, though, are unaware of this future change of heart and question why the individual is not being punished.

Verses in Torah which promise retribution or reward – These verses refer to recompense in this world, rather than the World to Come.  This is supported by the fact that most of the verses relate to physical rewards such as rain, crops, victory over enemies and the like. This fits with this approach, which agrees that people are blessed or cursed in their lifetime, just as the verses promise.

Hashem's providence: individual or collective – According to this position, there is not only collective, but also individual providence in this world. This is supported by the various verses which speak of individual retribution such as Devarim's promise that a "man or woman" who turns away from Hashem will receive the curses of Parashat Ki Tavo.

World to Come – The existence of a World to Come does not preclude justice in this world.  Since one's actions were done in the physical world, they are requited there as well.

Afflictions of love – This position could agree with Rambam who appears to totally reject the concept of afflictions of love,⁷ or with Ramban who claims that even such afflictions serve to purify for some degree of sin.  He explains that they are considered "afflictions of love" since they come to erase inadvertent sins which are not severe enough to require punishment in the World to Come, but nonetheless need to be atoned.⁸

The Suffering of Iyyov – This approach matches that of Elifaz and the other friends in Sefer Iyyov, who try to convince Iyyov that, despite his righteous reputation, his afflictions must be punishment for sin. However, the opening of the book suggests that Iyyov was free of sin, and even if he had committed minor offenses it is hard to see how they could justify the severity of his suffering. This position might respond that Iyyov's questioning of Hashem after his suffering proved his lack of righteousness.  Nonetheless, the fact that Hashem rebukes Iyyov's friends suggests that their words to Iyyov were misguided.

Exile and enslavement in Egypt – This approach would maintain that, despite the silence in the text, both the exile and enslavement were punishment for sins of the nation.  [See Purposes of the Egyptian Bondage for discussion of the possible sins that were committed.] It would further suggest that each individual slave was worked more or less, in accordance with their deeds.

Prophetic complaints – If there really is no such thing as "צדיק ורע לו", why is it that the prophets complain about the phenomenon? 

• As prophets are human, they are not always privy to man's every action and might make assumptions about righteousness, just like laymen, leading them to question Hashem's justice.
• Ramban explains that even though the prophets intellectually knew that there is ultimate justice, in the moment of suffering, they too complained about their fate.

Collective punishment – According to this position, there is no collective punishment, but rather each person is punished only for their own sins. When the collective appears to be punished in Tanakh, that is because all the people afflicted are really culpable, either for the same sin, or for individual crimes of their own.  For elaboration, see Collective Punishment.⁹

"פֹּקֵד עֲוֺן אָבוֹת עַל בָּנִים" – This approach could agree with Shadal¹⁰ and R. ReggioR. Y"S Reggio Bikkurei HaIttim (1846)¹¹ that this verse does not mean that children are punished for their parents' sins, but rather that Hashem punishes children even for sins which they learned from their parents' conduct.¹²  As such, the children themselves are guilty and suffer only for their own actions, not those of their ancestors. See Are Children Punished for Parents' Sins for more.

Dynamics of Divine justice – This approach understands understands Divine justice to mean that everyone is rewarded or punished exactly according to their deeds, in this world.

Retribution Misperceived

What appears to be a reward or a punishment might actually be the opposite. As such, what is construed as unjust retribution is really not so.

Sources:RambamMoreh Nevukhim 3:23About R. Moshe b. Maimon,¹³ rejected opinion in RalbagMilchamot HaShem 4:5Milchamot HaShem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom, RanBereshit 15:13Derashot HaRan 8Derashot HaRan 10About R. Nissim Gerondi,¹⁴ R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:2Or Hashem 2:2:4Or Hashem 2:2:4About R. Chasdai Crescas,¹⁵ R. Yosef Albo4:74:124:13About R. Yosef Albo,¹⁶ R. Avraham SabaTzeror HaMor Bereshit 23About R. Avraham Saba (Tzeror HaMor), ShadalShemot 20:4About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto,¹⁷

Why is compensation misperceived?

• Physical goods are not true rewards – RambamMoreh Nevukhim 3:23About R. Moshe b. Maimon suggests that people assume that happiness comes from physical good (such as health, children and wealth), when in reality these pale in comparison to the ultimate good: knowledge of Hashem.¹⁸  Thus, an outsider might consider a צדיק who lives in poverty to be suffering, when in fact that individual is on such a spiritual level that they simply do not regard physical affliction as suffering at all.
• Missing full picture – Most other commentators suggest, instead, that compensation is often misconstrued since people tend to only see part of a person's retribution:

• Delayed punishment / reward – The illusion of injustice might be caused by the fact that Hashem does not always give recompense immediately after one commits a sin or does a good deed,¹⁹ making it difficult to see how every action is paid for measure for measure.²⁰ Shadal points out, however, that if one were to look at an individual's retribution over the span of a lifetime, one would see that it matches his deeds.²¹
• Unknown goal of retribution – A person might receive what appears to be a reprieve in punishment, or even a reward, but in reality the point is to ultimately cause more damage later. For example, R. Saadia claims that Paroh did not die at the beginning of the cycle of plagues to ensure that he suffer through all and eventually drown in the sea.  Similarly, the wicked might get a small blessing, only so as to prevent them from receiving a much greater undeserved reward.²² The inverse is also true; the righteous sometimes suffer slight hardships to prevent bigger catastrophes,²³ make them better people,²⁴ or enable greater rewards.²⁵ 
• Only external compensation apparent – Often a person's emotional well being is less apparent to an outsider than his physical rewards, leading to the misconception that "רשע וטוב לו" while in fact the individual is suffering emotional turmoil. Thus, R"Y Albo suggests that though people might envy the wealthy, having much property is more of a curse than a reward, as Chazal say, "מרבה נכסים מרבה דאגה".‎²⁶

World to Come – Hashem does not wait for the World to Come to mete out retribution, but punishes and rewards where the deeds were done.

Hashem's providence: individual or collective? According to this approach, there is both individual and collective providence in this world.

Verses in Torah which promise retribution or reward – These verses refer to recompense in this world, which are meted out to both the collective and individuals, as they deserve. This fits this approach as a whole but since most of the verses speak of physical good, the Rambam's claim that true reward is intellectual/spiritual in nature is somewhat difficult.

Immediate punishment of the sinner in Devarim 7 – Hashem's promise of immediate retribution to the sinner ("וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר") contradicts the suggestion that sometimes Hashem delays a person's punishment until later in life. This position would respond that the phrase "לֹא יְאַחֵר" does not mean that Hashem never delays retribution, only that He does not postpone it to the next world.²⁷ Rather he makes sure to dispense justice in this world.

The suffering of Iyyov

• Rambam explains that once Iyyov attained a strong understanding of Hashem he himself acknowledged that true happiness is not related to physical good, but to recognition of God. As such, any physical harm that had come to him was insignificant. As evidence he points to Iyyov's words, "לְשֵׁמַע אֹזֶן שְׁמַעְתִּיךָ וְעַתָּה עֵינִי רָאָתְךָ עַל כֵּן אֶמְאַס וְנִחַמְתִּי עַל עָפָר וָאֵפֶר".
• This position might also explain that the book ends with Iyyov not only regaining all he lost, but being rewarded with more than he had at the outset.  This proves that over one's lifetime Hashem compensates for any suffering, evening out the score before death. However, one might question if the anguish caused by loss is really undone when that loss is replaced (even if it is replaced by something more valuable).²⁸

Exile and enslavement in Egypt – This position could suggest that the exile and bondage actually had many hidden benefits: preventing assimilation, instilling empathy, fostering unity and erasing class distinctions. In addition, the experience served to purify the people so they would merit to receive the Torah and the Land of Israel.²⁹  However, as many of these benefits relate only to the nation as a whole, rather than to individuals, the question of individual justice remains.³⁰

Prophetic complaints – R. ChananelShemot 5:22About R. Bachya b. Asher and. R. Saadia GaonHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 8:2HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9:1About R. Saadia Gaon. suggest that when Moshe and Yirmeyahu question Hashem regarding why the righteous continue to suffer while the wicked prosper,³¹ Hashem reassures them that everyone will get their just compensation in the near future,³² and that the present delay will allow for a doubling of both the punishment of the wicked and reward of the righteous.³³ This accords with this general approach, that compensation does come in this world and what originally might appear as unfair is evened out later.

Afflictions of love – Ralbag suggests that afflictions of love refer to those afflictions which contain a hidden good,³⁴ prevent a worse evil, or enable a person to merit rewards later in life. Though they might initially appear to be a case of "צדיק ורע לו", they are actually "לטוב לו".

Dynamics of Divine justice – This approach understands Divine justice to mean that everyone is rewarded or punished exactly according to their deeds, in this world.

Difficulties with this approach – There are certain hardships which are very difficult to understand as being blessings in disguise.  What hidden good did an individual who suffered and died at the hands of the Nazis receive?

Just Compensation in the World to Come

People do not get their just compensation in this world.  It is only in the World to Come that Hashem gives everyone their appropriate due. The position subdivides regarding the reason why true compensation is delayed:

Natural Order and General Providence

Since this world is usually run via natural order, and retribution is meted out according to the majority, at times an individual receives undeserved retribution.

Sources:RambanTorat HaAdam Shaar HaGemulBereshit 18:19Devarim 11:13Iyyov, IntroductionIyyov 36:7About R. Moshe b. Nachman,³⁵ RalbagMilchamot HaShem 4:2Milchamot HaShem 4:5Milchamot HaShem 4:6Milchamot HaShem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom, RanBereshit 15:13Derashot HaRan 8About R. Nissim Gerondi,³⁶ R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:2Or Hashem 2:2:4Or Hashem 2:2:4R. Chasdai CrescasAbout R. Chasdai Crescas,³⁷ AbarbanelDevarim 4:15-24Devarim 32:1About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel,³⁸

Divine providence – All these sources testify to the existence of individual Divine providence.  Though they disagree regarding its exact nature, they seem to concur that not all individuals merit it to the same degree. They suggest³⁹ that the more righteous one is (or the more in line with the Active Intellect), the more providence one will receive.⁴⁰

Natural order – These sources claim that, Hashem's providence notwithstanding, this world is generally run via natural law,⁴¹ and not such providence.  Thus, in this world, individuals might be harmed by, or benefit from, the vicissitudes of nature unrelated to their particular merits.⁴² Only a person who is so righteous that he merits Divine intervention to overturn nature will be protected from undeserved chance disasters.⁴³

Sharing the fate of the collective – A corollary of the above is the idea that since, in this world, general providence takes precedence, the world is "judged according to the majority".⁴⁴  Thus, often individuals might share the fate of the many, even if undeserving.  If the majority of the nation deserves punishment, the few righteous individuals within will suffer as well,⁴⁵ while if the community deserves blessings, the few wicked will reap the reward with them.⁴⁶

Verses in Torah which promise retribution or reward – Many verses⁴⁷ promise physical rewards or punishments which appear to refer to compensation in this world,⁴⁸ and as such present a difficulty for this position:

• R. Crescas responds that the retribution spoken about in the verses is for the collective, and refers to national rather than individual rewards. This works with the vast majority of blessings/curses in Torah, which are indeed collective in nature.⁴⁹  However, Devarim 29:17-20 explicitly refers to individuals and states that they will receive the curses of Parashat Ki Tavo, suggesting that, at least, these blessings/curses refer to the individual.⁵⁰
• Other promises such as "לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ" in Shemot 20 and Devarim 22 are understood to refer to the next world.⁵¹

The World to Come – According to this position, the existence of suffering in this world (and the assumption of Hashem's justice) is one of the strongest proofs that a World to Come exists.⁵² Moreover, since the World to Come is the ultimate goal, it is not problematic that justice is deferred until then.⁵³

Immediate punishment of the sinner in Devarim 7:10 – Devarim 7:10 appears to promise that punishment is not deferred, posing a significant difficulty for this position.  These sources could suggest that the verse is speaking on a national level.⁵⁴ Alternatively, they could explain, as do Ibn KaspiDevarim 7:10About R. Yosef ibn Kaspi and R. Reggio, that the verse does not mean to say that Hashem always gives immediate retribution, but rather that this is one of Hashem's many modes of justice.⁵⁵

Exile and enslavement in Egypt – These sources disagree regarding the reason for the bondage in Egypt:

• Punishment – Ramban, Ralbag⁵⁶and Abarbanel suggest that it was punishment for sin (and thus not an example of undeserved retribution).⁵⁷
• Afflictions of Love – The Ran and R. Crescas view it as afflictions of love (see their position below).
• Natural order – Abarbanel⁵⁸ also raises the possibility that it was merely the result of natural processes and human choices.  The brothers sold Yosef of their own free will, setting forth a process which led them to descend to Egypt and all that followed.

"פֹּקֵד עֲוֺן אָבוֹת עַל בָּנִים" – Ralbag maintains that this principle, too, is the result of natural order.  It refers to the collateral damage naturally suffered by a child due to parental misdeeds. For instance, if a parent commits a crime and is fined that he lose his property, the child by default will suffer as well.

The present exile – According to Ralbag, the present exile is another example of collateral damage.  Our ancestors sinned, forcing them out of the land and leaving many generations to continue to suffer in exile as a consequence.  Though many descendants on their own might not deserve exile, they might also not merit enough individual providence to be returned to Israel.

Afflictions of love – Most of these sources combine this approach with the idea that sometimes suffering is a result of "afflictions of love".  See next position for elaboration.

Individual Providence and Afflictions of Love

In this world righteous people might nonetheless suffer while the wicked prosper for a variety of reasons related to Hashem's individual providence, chief among them "afflictions of love."

Sources:Targum OnkelosDevarim 7:10About Targum Onkelos, Sifre Devarim11:26About Sifre Devarim, YerushalmiChagigah 2:1About the Yerushalmi, BavliShabbat 30bTaanit 11aKiddushin 39bKiddushin 40bChulin 142aAbout the Bavli, Targum Pseudo-JonathanDevarim 7:10About Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, R. Saadia GaonHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3About R. Saadia Gaon, R. Chananelcited by R. Bachya Shemot 5:22About R. Bachya b. Asher, Chovot HaLevavot4:3About R. Bachya ibn Pakuda, RashiDevarim 7:10Devarim 32:4Berakhot 5aAbout R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, Kuzari3:196:1About R. Yehuda HaLevi, RadakYechezkel 18:6Hoshea 14:10About R. David Kimchi, RambanTorat HaAdam Shaar HaGemulDevarim 11:13About R. Moshe b. Nachman, R. BachyaShemot 5:22About R. Bachya b. Asher, RanBereshit 15:13Derashot HaRan 8Derashot HaRan 10About R. Nissim Gerondi, R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:2Or Hashem 2:2:4Or Hashem 2:2:4Or Hashem 3:1:3:3About R. Chasdai Crescas, Sefer HaIkkarim4:74:124:13About R. Yosef Albo,

Individual providence: ensure proper compensation – R. Saadia suggests that souls enjoy either total reward, or total punishment in the next world. Yet, no one is totally perfect or wicked, so Hashem makes sure to compensate for all of a righteous person's sins and all of a wicked person's good deeds already in this world.⁵⁹  Thus, Hashem's providence ensures that no deed goes unrequited and justice prevails.  Ironically, this justice is simultaneously the chief cause of the illusion of injustice.⁶⁰

Afflictions of love – According to many of these sources, the suffering of the righteous in this world should be understood as "afflictions of love". They differ, though, in their understanding both of the purpose of such afflictions, and whether or not they come even without sin:

• Increase reward  – Rashi, R. Chananel, R. Bachya,⁶¹ and R"Y Albo suggest that sometimes afflictions affect an innocent person, only so that he will merit more reward in the next world.⁶² [The person's tormentors simultaneously earn a bigger punishment.] 
• Improve a person – Ran and R. Chasdai agree that afflictions come even without sin, but explain that their purpose is to humble a person or distance him from the physical desires of this world.  This helps prepare him for spiritual closeness to Hashem. A similar process takes place when Hashem tests a person. Through the test, the person grows and perfects himself.⁶³
• Proof for others  – R.Saadia,⁶⁴ Chovot HaLevavot, and R"Y Albo explain that sometimes a righteous person is tested, despite not having sinned, so that others will learn that he acts uprightly out of love of Hashem, and not out of desire for reward or fear of punishment. Such undeserved suffering will be compensated later.
• Prepare individual for next world – Ramban, in contrast, maintains that afflictions of love, like other suffering, come due to sin.  However, these serve to atone rather than punish,⁶⁵ cleansing a person from their inadvertent sins⁶⁶ so as to prepare the soul for the World to Come.  In the time of the Mikdash, a sin offering would have served this purpose, but since its destruction suffering comes in its place.

Participating in the Individual providence bestowed on others – Other cases of undeserved retribution occur when the individual is either the recipient of Hashem's Divine providence over another, or a tool used by Hashem to enact justice or mercy on another.

• Recipient – R. Saadia claims that an undeserving wicked person might be saved due to the prayers of the righteous, as was the case when Lot was saved due to Avraham's pleas. Alternatively, he might benefit from being in the shadow of a righteous person, as when Lavan and Potiphar's homes were blessed due to the presence of Yaakov and Yosef (R"Y Albo).  Another example would be a righteous child vicariously or collectively suffering for his parent's sins. In all these cases, justice is evened out in the next world.⁶⁷
• Tool – A person's punishment might be deferred so that Hashem can use him as a tool to enact vengeance on someone else,⁶⁸ or to bring good to the world through the birth of a righteous child.⁶⁹ Conversely, a righteous person might suffer so as to atone for the sins of others.

The World to Come – R. Saadia asserts that innocent suffering is proof of a World to Come.  Since the two worlds are one continuum, and this world is only a foyer to the next, it is not unjust that retribution can be spread out over both, with full justice only being meted out later. One might nonetheless disagree, expecting that compensation should come where deeds are committed. Rambam further questions why it is just to bring upon someone suffering without cause, even if they are to be compensated for it.⁷⁰

Verses which promise reward in this world – As above, these sources might agree with R. Crescas that the rewards mentioned in the Torah relate to the nation as a a whole rather than to the individual.  Only individuals must wait for the next world to receive their true rewards.⁷¹

Immediate retribution in Devarim 7 – Many of these sources⁷² explain that the verse is not a promise to punish the wicked in this world, but rather to pay him in his lifetime for any good deeds he might have done.  This then allows for him to be destroyed in the World to Come.⁷³

The suffering of Iyyov – R. Saadia and R"Y Albo point to Iyyov as an example of someone who was tested through afflictions of love as a sign to those who question the commitment of the righteous.

Suffering servant – R"Y Albo points to the suffering servant of Yeshayahu 53 as an example of a righteous person who suffers for no sins of his own, only so as to atone for the sins of others. Hashem promises, "לָכֵן אֲחַלֶּק לוֹ בָרַבִּים", which Rashi and Malbim explain to refer to his sharing in the portion of the great ones in the World to Come as compensation.

"פֹּקֵד עֲוֺן אָבוֹת עַל בָּנִים" – At times a person can suffer due to the sins of his parents, but if so, he will be compensated for such hardships in the next world.⁷⁴  See Are Children Punished for Parents' Sins for more.

The exile and enslavement in Egypt – R. Chananel, R. Bachya, Ran, R. Chasdai Crescas and Tzeror HaMor all claim that this was an example of afflictions of love, meant either to increase the reward of the nation or to raise them to higher spiritual levels.  Both R. Bachya and R. Chasdai compare the experience to their contemporary exile and persecution, and attempt to comfort their own generation through their explanations.⁷⁵  See Purposes of the Egyptian Bondage for elaboration.

Hashem's Ways are Beyond Human Comprehension

Since Hashem's knowledge and providence are different than ours, people cannot always understand Hashem's ways.

Sources:R. Meir in Bavli BerakhotBerakhot 7aAbout the Bavli, Bavli MenachotMenachot 29bAbout the Bavli, RambamMoreh Nevukhim 3:23About R. Moshe b. Maimon,⁷⁶ R. Y"D Soloveitchik⁷⁷

Suffering and the Book of Iyyov – According to Rambam this is the message that Elihu tries to teach Iyyov at the end of the book. The description of the Leviathan and other natural wonders was supposed to demonstrate how humans cannot grasp such phenomenon, all the more so understand the ways of Hashem and His providence.

A non-answer? R. Soloveitchik points out that since we can never really know the answer to the question of why people get undeserved retribution in this world, it is more helpful to instead ask, what can we learn from the phenomenon. In the Rav's words, "what obligation does suffering impose on man?"  He answers that afflictions should be used to elevate man, purify him and redeem him. As the Bavli BerakhotBerakhot 5aAbout the Bavli advises, "אם רואה אדם שיסורין באין עליו יפשפש במעשיו"‎.⁷⁸

¹ Other commentators, including R. Saadia GaonHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 8:2HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9:1About R. Saadia Gaon, Chovot HaLevavot4:3About R. Bachya ibn Pakuda, RambanTorat HaAdam Shaar HaGemulDevarim 11:13About R. Moshe b. Nachman, R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:2Or Hashem 2:2:4Or Hashem 2:2:4About R. Chasdai Crescas, Sefer HaIkkarim4:74:124:13About R. Yosef Albo and AbarbanelDevarim 32:1About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel also bring this approach, but only as a partial explanation for the phenomenon.

² See also Bavli Berakhot which differentiates between the "totally righteous / wicked" and those who are only partially righteous or wicked.

³ As an example, he points to someone who did not rebuke those who deserve punishment and help them to repent.

⁴ See also R. Crescas who makes the same point.

⁵ This fits with the idea that Hashem is extremely stringent with the righteous, punishing them harshly for even minor sins ("ה' מדקדק עם חסידיו כחוט השערה").  According to Ralbag, since these individuals are extremely capable, the expectations are much higher.  A small misdemeanor for them is equivalent to a major crime for another.

⁶ This assumes that repentance removes the need for punishment.  However, depending on the nature of the original sins, it is questionable whether penitence alone should suffice and when afflictions are nonetheless needed for full atonement.

⁷ Rambam claims that despite Chazal's claims in Berakhot 5a, the Torah never speaks of a concept of "afflictions of love".

⁸ He maintains that in the time of the Mikdash a sin offering would have sufficed, but since its destruction, suffering serves as a replacement.

⁹ For analysis of specific stories in Tanakh see also Avraham's Prayer for Sedom, Dialogue with the Divine During Korach's Rebellion and Collective Punishment for Akhan's Sin.

¹⁰ This is the position Shadal expressed in his Ohev Ger in 1830. In Bikkurei HaIttim HaChadashim (1846) pp. 6b-8a, Shadal offers a different position and later explicitly retracted what he wrote in Ohev Ger. By then, this earlier interpretation had been adopted and expounded on by R. Y"S Reggio.

¹¹ This represents R. Reggio's updated approach to the topic as discussed in his article in Bikkurei HaIttim (1846). In his earlier Torah commentary (published in 1821) he had expressed a different understanding of the verse, but after reading Shadal's explanation (as published in Ohev Ger) he changed his thoughts on the matter.

¹² "עֲוֹן אָבוֹת" means the sins which children learned from their parents, not the sins of the parents.

¹³ This is not the Rambam's full explanation of the phenomenon and only represents a partial answer given in his explanation to the book of Iyyov.

¹⁴ The Ran offers this as a partial answer to the question of undue retribution in this world and does not think that it suffices on its own.  His full position is that true compensation comes only in the next world.

¹⁵ This explanation is only brought as a partial explanation of the phenomenon, one which R. Chasdai does not think suffices on its own.

¹⁶ R"Y Albo, too, offers this as only one of many explanations of the phenomenon.

¹⁷ Other commentators such as RambamMoreh Nevukhim 3:23About R. Moshe b. Maimon, R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:2Or Hashem 2:2:4Or Hashem 2:2:4About R. Chasdai Crescas, R. Yosef Albo 4:74:124:13About R. Yosef Alboand R. Avraham SabaTzeror HaMor Bereshit 23About R. Avraham Saba (Tzeror HaMor) also bring this approach, but only as a partial explanation of the phenomenon.

¹⁸ This is how Rambam explains part of Sefer Iyyov, but it is not his full explanation of the problem of evil in the world. See below that he maintains that ultimately Hashem's ways are beyond human comprehension.

¹⁹ This would seem to go against the promise in Devarim 7:10, "וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר לְשֹׂנְאוֹ אֶל פָּנָיו יְשַׁלֶּם לוֹ."  This position could explain that the words "לֹא יְאַחֵר" mean that Hashem will pay back the sinner in this world, and not wait for the World to Come. See bullet below.

²⁰ See Reggio's formulation, "לפעמים ראתה החכמה העליונה להחיש ולמהר עונש החוטא (ובודאי תהיה זאת לטובת הנענש) ולהאריך ולהמתין זמן רב בגמול הצדיקים (אשר מזה יקרה בעולם הזה מקרה צדיק ורע לו) לעומת מה שפעמים אחדות יאריך אפו לרשעים ולא יענישם מיד (אשר מזה יקרה רשע וטוב לו)". 

²¹ Though a person might suffer a small hardship at some point, later they might receive a great blessing, evening things out.

²² See  אוצר המדרשים אייזנשטיין עמ' 211  which tells of Eliyahu miraculously fixing the crumbling wall of a wicked individual's home so as to prevent the person from finding a valuable treasure that lay there were he to fix it himself.

²³ Thus, a person whose car breaks down causing him to miss a plane and a great business opportunity, might find out later that the plane crashed and his short term loss was actually a blessing in disguise.

²⁴ See the Ran and R. Chasdai that suffering sometimes comes to humble a person and thereby prevent them from coming to sin or be drawn to desires.

²⁵ For instance, a person might lose a job, only so that he will be available to accept a much better work opportunity later. This whole approach is symbolized by Nachum Ish Gamzu, so called for his readiness to recognize that what appeared at first to be negative, might in fact turn out to be good ("גם זו לטובה").  See the well known story about him in Bavli Taanit 21a.

²⁶ See also Kohelet 5:12, "עֹשֶׁר שָׁמוּר לִבְעָלָיו לְרָעָתוֹ".

²⁷ See RashbamDevarim 7:10About R. Shemuel b. Meir and ChizkuniDevarim 7:10About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach.

²⁸ It is not at all clear, for example, that a new child can really compensate for one that has died.

²⁹  See Purposes of the Egyptian Bondage for discussion of each of these possibilities.

³⁰ For instance, many Israelites died while still in bondage and never reaped the benefits which first occurred after the redemption (such as receiving the Torah or the Land of Israel).  It is further questionable if the other positives gained by the bondage outweighed the negatives on an individual level, and whether they could not have been gained without suffering.

³¹ See Shemot 5:22-23 and Yirmeyahu 12:1-2.

³² This is how R. Chananel and R. Saadia explain these specific instances. In general, however, they both speak not only of compensation later in this world, but also in the World to Come.

³³ R. Chananel suggests that this is alluded to in Hashem's answer to Moshe, "עַתָּה תִרְאֶה אֲשֶׁר אֶעֱשֶׂה לְפַרְעֹה...". R. Saadia similarly suggests that Hashem's words in Yirmeyahu 12:7, "עָזַבְתִּי אֶת בֵּיתִי נָטַשְׁתִּי אֶת נַחֲלָתִי נָתַתִּי אֶת יְדִדוּת נַפְשִׁי בְּכַף אֹיְבֶיהָ" are a promise of harsh punishment in the future for those whom Yirmeyahu believed had been spared.

³⁴ These could be physical or spiritual, so afflictions which bring a person closer to Hashem or prevent him from otherwise sinning would fall in this category as well.

³⁵ Ramban combines this approach with the one below, pointing out that sometimes it is actually individual providence which leads one to get partial compensation in this world, with the purpose being to properly prepare one so that their soul will receive correct compensation in the next world.

³⁶ The Ran also speaks of afflictions of love as being a cause of undeserved suffering of the righteous in this world.  See approach below.

³⁷ Like his teacher, the Ran, R. Crescas also brings alternative understandings as to why not all get their just due in this world, pointing to afflictions of love amongst other factors.  See approach below..

³⁸ R. SaadiaCommentary Bereshit 6:7HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 8HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9About R. Saadia Gaon, R. Yehuda Halevi1:1093:196:1About R. Yehuda HaLevi, and R"Y Albo4:74:124:13About R. Yosef Albo all also maintain that people might get undeserved retribution due to general providence and natural order, but it is not clear that they agree that this is necessarily the norm. Though the RambamCommentary on the Mishna Sanhedrin 10:1Hilkhot Teshuvah 9:1Moreh Nevukhim 3:12Moreh Nevukhim 3:17Moreh Nevukhim 3:18Moreh Nevukhim 3:23Moreh Nevukhim 3:51About R. Moshe b. Maimon's understanding of providence closely resembles that described by the sources in this section (who are influenced heavily by his writings), he appears to disagree regarding the role of the World to Come.  Though he too agrees that the ultimate reward for observance and good deeds is in Ola HaBa, that fact should not preclude receiving the rewards (or punishments) mentioned in the Torah in this world. Moreover, it is not just to make someone suffer without cause, even if they are to be compensated in a later world.

³⁹ This is an idea developed at length by the Rambam in Moreh Nevuchim.

⁴⁰ According to Ralbag, this means that some people might not merit any individual providence at all.   Ramban similarly points out that only purely righteous or purely wicked people will merit miraculous intervention, while the majority of average people will be left to the ways of the world.

⁴¹ They refer to this as the astronomical system (מערכת הכוכבים).

⁴² The Ran points to Rava's statement in Moed KatanMoed Katan 28aAbout the Bavli that length of life and livelihood are dependent on the constellations rather than one's merits, as proven by the very different fates of Rabbah and R. Chisda despite their both being Torah giants. He gives another example from everyday life:  if an individual walks outside with an uncovered head in the middle of the summer, it is likely that s/he will get a headache, but thi is not because s/he is being individually targeted.

⁴³ As such, Ramban suggests that if a totally righteous person suffers, and he has really committed no sins, this must be explained in a different manner and is related to the secrets of reincarnation.  He refers to this as "סוד העיבור".  [See his comments in Shaar HaGemual and his introduction to Iyyov.]

⁴⁴ See Bavli KiddushinKiddushin 40bAbout the Bavli

⁴⁵ The Kuzari3:19About R. Yehuda HaLevi brings the example of a drought that is decreed upon a nation due to their wrongdoing.  Despite their righteousness, this will still affect the few believers living in the country. [As above, the only exceptions would be truly outstanding individuals who are miraculously saved, or are otherwise protected by Divine providence.]

⁴⁶ For further discussion of collective punishment, see Collective Punishment.

⁴⁷ See, for example, the blessings and curses in Vayikra 26, Devarim 11:13-17, and Devarim 28.

⁴⁸ As the blessings include agricultural rewards, victory over enemies, children and health, they would seem to relate to this world rather than the next.

⁴⁹ They speak of war/peace, rain/drought, etc.

⁵⁰ Ramban would likely explain that the individual spoken of in those verses is someone who worships idolatry, and is thus "completely wicked".  As such, individual Divine providence sets in and he will in fact be punished in this world, rather than the next, as implied by the verses.

⁵¹ See R. Yaakov's well known statement, "למען ייטב לך לעולם שכולו טוב ולמען יאריכון ימיך לעולם שכולו ארוך" (Bavli Kiddushin 39b).  It should be noted however, that many of the verses which promise the reward of long life (including Devarim 5:15 mentioned in the gemara)  add "עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר יְהֹוָה אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ", clearly pointing to a blessing in this world.

⁵² See R. SaadiaHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9About R. Saadia Gaon who says this explicitly. R. Crescas question, if the next world is the essence, why is it never mentioned in the Torah.  He answers that already during the period of the Egyptian bondage belief in an afterlife was so enrooted in the people that there was no need to write about it.

⁵³ It is not clear if all these sources agree that undue suffering (or undeserved blessing) in this world is necessarily compensated for in the next, or if it just becomes inconsequential in light of the great reward/ punishment given to the soul after death.

⁵⁴ See below that Ramban (in his Shaar Hagemul) and others explain that the verse is speaking not of immediate punishment, but immediate reward to the wicked for their few merits, so that they will ultimately be destroyed in the next world.

⁵⁵ However, one might question, what is the purpose of highlighting the fact if it is not always true.

⁵⁶ This is how he explains the enslavement. He maintains that the original exile and redemption, on the other hand, were educative and meant to instill monotheistic beliefs.

⁵⁷ Ralbag blames the Children of Israel as a whole, and would explain that any individual innocents were simply caught up in the punishment of the collective.  However, as Ramban blames Avraham, and Abarbanel blames the brothers of Yosef, each would have to explain why it was their innocent descendants who bore the brunt of the punishment.  Abarbanel could explain that the descendants suffered the natural consequences of their ancestor's deeds. Once the brothers were punished with exile, their children were doomed to the same fate. This is a more difficult argument to make if Avraham is the one who sinned, since he himself was not punished at all.

⁵⁸ This is only one of several explanations that he brings. In this he follows Akeidat Yitzchak.

⁵⁹ In this he follows Targum Onkelos, Bavli TaanitTaanit 11aAbout the Bavli, Bavli KiddushinKiddushin 39bKiddushin 40bKiddushin 40bAbout the Bavli and other similar sources.

⁶⁰ Since each person is compensated for the minority rather than the majority of their actions in this world, their compensation appear lopsided. [A generally good person might still have a significant number of sins to atone for, and as such might end up suffering much in this world.  A generally bad person, in contrast, might have nonetheless done many good deeds, allowing him to live a generally good life in this world.]

⁶¹ This is how R. Bachya explains such afflictions in his commentary on Shemot 5.  However, in his Kad HaKemach (s.v. Kippurim, pp. 209-211), he appears to adopt the Ramban's position that even ייסורין של אהבה come because of a (small) sin.

⁶² In other words, if a person's merits earned him a certain amount of rewards in the World to Come, after suffering, he will receive even more blessings, in order to compensate for the afflictions. The assumption is that a person would be happy to suffer in this world in order to reap more benefits in the next. [This seems to be the meaning of the derashah in Bavli Shabbat 30b as well.] 
R" Albo develops the idea slightly differently, speaking of tests that the righteous endure so as to receive reward not just for proper intentions but for actions as well.  As an example he points to the Binding of Isaac, where Hashem tested Avraham, despite knowing in advance that he would Hashem's word, only so that Avraham could be rewarded for actively undergoing the trial.

⁶³ R. Crescas points out that the act of enduring a test brings one to higher levels than before. He uses this concept to explain why Hashem would need to test someone if he knows beforehand whether or not they will pass. Thus, he explains that when Hashem says to Avraham after the Binding of Isaac "עַתָּה יָדַעְתִּי כִּי יְרֵא אֱלֹהִים אַתָּה", this really is "new" knowledge because until that moment Avraham did not have that level of יראת אלוקים. Likewise, when Hashem tells the nation, "כִּי מְנַסֶּה י"י אֱלֹהֵיכֶם אֶתְכֶם לָדַעַת הֲיִשְׁכֶם אֹהֲבִים אֶת י"ילהיכם," He really is testing to see how much a person loves Him, since it is only after the test that the person had been brought to that new level of love.

⁶⁴ R. Saadia does not use the language of "afflictions of love".

⁶⁵ These sins are not severe enough to require punishment in the next world, but nonetheless need to be atoned.

⁶⁶ Cf. R"Y Albo.  In contrast to Ramban, he also includes other minor sins that a person might not have repented properly over. Both Ramban and R'Y Albo are drawing off Rabbinnic sources such as Bavli Taanit 11a and Bavli Kiddushin 40b.

⁶⁷ If so, however, it becomes selfish for someone to request that a loved one be spared in this world, if they know that this only means more punishment in the next.

⁶⁸ As an example, R. Saadia points to Assyria whom Hashem used to exact vengeance  on other nations, referring to him as "שֵׁבֶט אַפִּי וּמַטֶּה הוּא בְיָדָם זַעְמִי" (Yeshayahu 10:5).

⁶⁹ See R. Saadia and R"Y Albo, following Kohelet Rabbah.  As an example, they points to the kings, Achaz and Amon, each of whom might have been spared to enable the birth of their righteous children, Chizkiyahu and  Yoshiyahu, respectively.  This works for Amon who died 8 years after Yoshiyahu's birth but is much more difficult to say about Achaz who bore Chizkiyahu at the age of only 11 (see Melakhim II 16:2 and 18:2). Despite the weakness of this particular example, however, the point can still be made.

⁷⁰ Most people would not say that it is just to break someone's arm because you plan to pay for medical expenses, compensate for the pain caused, etc.  Even if you were to add some undeserved bonus, most would prefer not to have thier arm broken to begin with.

⁷¹ See above that Devarim 29's explicit promise of individual retribution remains a problem for this position.

⁷² See the Targumim, R. Saadia, Chovot HaLevavot, Rashi, Radak, Ramban in his Shaar HaGemul and R"Y Albo.

⁷³ The verse would read "וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו [= בחייו,שכר מצוותיו] לְהַאֲבִידוֹ [בעולם הבא] "

⁷⁴ See Avot DeRabbi Natan and Mishnat R. Eliezer which maintain that a person's fate in this world is predetermined by their parent's behavior, while only their reward in the World to Come is determined by their own actions.  For elaboration on their position, see Are Children Punished for Parents' Sins.

⁷⁵ For R. Chasdai, the Jews of Christian Spain were reliving the experience of the Egyptian Exile on a daily basis. [The community was decimated in the Spanish pogroms of 1391 and their aftermath]. He emphasizes that the Egyptian bondage was not the result of sin, just as his own generation's persecution is not due to any wrongdoing on their part. In this he is likely attempting both to provide comfort to his own community, and to respond to Christian polemics regarding the downtrodden Jew.  For more on R. Chasdai's view of his own exile, see Prof. Zev Harvey, R. Hasdai Crescas, (Jerusalem, 2010): 157-160.

⁷⁶ The Rambam discusses Divine providence and the question of evil in many places in his works. 

⁷⁷ See: "קול דודי דופק" in "איש האמונה" (Jerusalem, 1981):65-106.

⁷⁸ This is not to say that they come because one has sinned, but rather that we should use the experience of suffering to better ourselves.