Philosophy:Theodicy – צדיק ורע לו/2

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Theodicy – צדיק ורע לו

Exegetical Approaches

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Overview

When tackling the problem of "צדיק ורע לו", most commentators take one of three approaches, questioning the assumptions behind each word of the complaint:

  • Is the afflicted person truly a "צדיק"?
  • Is the perceived suffering really "רע"?
  • Is the calamity actually targeted "לו", at the individual?

The first two approaches suggest that everyone gets their appropriate due in this world. It only seems to the outsider that the righteous suffer (or wicked prosper) because we do not have a good perspective on the true merits of a person. Often people are not what they seem, and a wicked person might really be a hidden tzaddik (or the opposite). Conversely, at times, we mistake not the nature of the person, but the nature of their recompense.  We assume that something is a reward when it is in fact a punishment or vice versa.

The third approach suggests that actually, in this world, people do not always receive their just desserts. Since this world is run by nature and judged according to the collective, it is possible that an individual will undeservedly be included in the rewards (or punishment) aimed at another, and fall prey to the vicissitudes of chance.  This, however, should not be perceived as unjust because true compensation is reserved for the next world, where everyone receives their appropriate due.

A final approach leaves the question unanswered, claiming that God's ways are beyond human comprehension.  Instead of worrying about why we suffer, we should ask what we can learn from the suffering, and how we can prevent the afflictions of others.

Just Compensation in This World

Everyone gets their appropriate due in this world.  Though it sometimes seems as if innocent people are being punished or wicked people are being rewarded, this is only because outsiders often misevaluate the righteousness of a person, or misunderstand the nature of their compensation:

Righteousness Misperceived

A person with a reputation for wickedness or righteousness might not always be what they seem. Thus, wrong-doers might have merits that justify their rewards, while the righteous might have committed sins which justify their punishment.

The terms צדיק and רשעR. SaadiaHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3About R. Saadia Gaon points out that people are viewed as good or evil based on the majority of their actions.  Thus a "צדיק" might still have sinned, and a "רשע" might have done some good.2
Why is righteousness / wickedness misperceived? People misevaluate others for several reasons:
  • Unaware of deeds – As people are not privy to all the actions of others, they are not always aware of their faults or merits.  Thus, RambanTorat HaAdam Shaar HaGemulAbout R. Moshe b. Nachman posits that suffering might result from accidental misdeeds of which the righteous themselves might not even be cognizant. Chovot HaLevavot4:3About R. Bachya ibn Pakuda adds that the sins might be ones of omission,3 not apparent to outsiders.  In addition many deeds (both positive and negative) are done in private, or involve thoughts rather than actions.
  • Ignore human potential – Ralbag4 suggests that people do not always take an individual's potential into account when evaluating their deeds.  If a person is righteous but had the potential to do significantly more than he did, he is not as deserving as he seems.5 Similarly, if a wicked person is born without a certain capacity for good, he should not be held culpable when he does not have many good deeds to his name.
  • Unaware of future – R. Saadia suggests that a person's punishment might be deferred since Hashem knows they are to repent later in life (at which point they will no longer be considered wicked).6 Humans, though, are unaware of this future change of heart and question why the individual is not being punished.
Verses in Torah which promise retribution or reward – These verses refer to recompense in this world, rather than the World to Come.  This is supported by the fact that most of the verses relate to physical rewards such as rain, crops, victory over enemies and the like. This fits with this approach, which agrees that people are blessed or cursed in their lifetime, just as the verses promise.
Hashem's providence: individual or collective – According to this position, there is not only collective, but also individual providence in this world. This is supported by the various verses which speak of individual retribution such as Devarim's promise that a "man or woman" who turns away from Hashem will receive the curses of Parashat Ki Tavo.
World to Come – The existence of a World to Come does not preclude justice in this world.  Since one's actions were done in the physical world, they are requited there as well.
Afflictions of love – This position could agree with Rambam who appears to totally reject the concept of afflictions of love,7 or with Ramban who claims that even such afflictions serve to purify for some degree of sin.  He explains that they are considered "afflictions of love" since they come to erase inadvertent sins which are not severe enough to require punishment in the World to Come, but nonetheless need to be atoned.8
The Suffering of Iyyov – This approach matches that of Elifaz and the other friends in Sefer Iyyov, who try to convince Iyyov that, despite his righteous reputation, his afflictions must be punishment for sin. However, the opening of the book suggests that Iyyov was free of sin, and even if he had committed minor offenses it is hard to see how they could justify the severity of his suffering. This position might respond that Iyyov's questioning of Hashem after his suffering proved his lack of righteousness.  Nonetheless, the fact that Hashem rebukes Iyyov's friends suggests that their words to Iyyov were misguided.
Exile and enslavement in Egypt – This approach would maintain that, despite the silence in the text, both the exile and enslavement were punishment for sins of the nation.  [See Purposes of the Egyptian Bondage for discussion of the possible sins that were committed.] It would further suggest that each individual slave was worked more or less, in accordance with their deeds.
Prophetic complaints – If there really is no such thing as "צדיק ורע לו", why is it that the prophets complain about the phenomenon? 
  • As prophets are human, they are not always privy to man's every action and might make assumptions about righteousness, just like laymen, leading them to question Hashem's justice.
  • Ramban explains that even though the prophets intellectually knew that there is ultimate justice, in the moment of suffering, they too complained about their fate.
Collective punishment – According to this position, there is no collective punishment, but rather each person is punished only for their own sins. When the collective appears to be punished in Tanakh, that is because all the people afflicted are really culpable, either for the same sin, or for individual crimes of their own.  For elaboration, see Collective Punishment.9
"פֹּקֵד עֲוֺן אָבוֹת עַל בָּנִים" – This approach could agree with Shadal10 and R. ReggioR. Y"S Reggio Bikkurei HaIttim (1846)11 that this verse does not mean that children are punished for their parents' sins, but rather that Hashem punishes children even for sins which they learned from their parents' conduct.12  As such, the children themselves are guilty and suffer only for their own actions, not those of their ancestors. See Are Children Punished for Parents' Sins for more.
Dynamics of Divine justice – This approach understands understands Divine justice to mean that everyone is rewarded or punished exactly according to their deeds, in this world.

Retribution Misperceived

What appears to be a reward or a punishment might actually be the opposite. As such, what is construed as unjust retribution is really not so.

Why is compensation misperceived?
  • Physical goods are not true rewardsRambamMoreh Nevukhim 3:23About R. Moshe b. Maimon suggests that people assume that happiness comes from physical good (such as health, children and wealth), when in reality these pale in comparison to the ultimate good: knowledge of Hashem.18  Thus, an outsider might consider a צדיק who lives in poverty to be suffering, when in fact that individual is on such a spiritual level that they simply do not regard physical affliction as suffering at all.
  • Missing full picture – Most other commentators suggest, instead, that compensation is often misconstrued since people tend to only see part of a person's retribution:
    • Delayed punishment / reward – The illusion of injustice might be caused by the fact that Hashem does not always give recompense immediately after one commits a sin or does a good deed,19 making it difficult to see how every action is paid for measure for measure.20 Shadal points out, however, that if one were to look at an individual's retribution over the span of a lifetime, one would see that it matches his deeds.21
    • Unknown goal of retribution – A person might receive what appears to be a reprieve in punishment, or even a reward, but in reality the point is to ultimately cause more damage later. For example, R. Saadia claims that Paroh did not die at the beginning of the cycle of plagues to ensure that he suffer through all and eventually drown in the sea.  Similarly, the wicked might get a small blessing, only so as to prevent them from receiving a much greater undeserved reward.22 The inverse is also true; the righteous sometimes suffer slight hardships to prevent bigger catastrophes,23 make them better people,24 or enable greater rewards.25 
    • Only external compensation apparent – Often a person's emotional well being is less apparent to an outsider than his physical rewards, leading to the misconception that "רשע וטוב לו" while in fact the individual is suffering emotional turmoil. Thus, R"Y Albo suggests that though people might envy the wealthy, having much property is more of a curse than a reward, as Chazal say, "מרבה נכסים מרבה דאגה".‎26
World to Come – Hashem does not wait for the World to Come to mete out retribution, but punishes and rewards where the deeds were done.
Hashem's providence: individual or collective? According to this approach, there is both individual and collective providence in this world.
Verses in Torah which promise retribution or reward – These verses refer to recompense in this world, which are meted out to both the collective and individuals, as they deserve. This fits this approach as a whole but since most of the verses speak of physical good, the Rambam's claim that true reward is intellectual/spiritual in nature is somewhat difficult.
Immediate punishment of the sinner in Devarim 7 – Hashem's promise of immediate retribution to the sinner ("וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר") contradicts the suggestion that sometimes Hashem delays a person's punishment until later in life. This position would respond that the phrase "לֹא יְאַחֵר" does not mean that Hashem never delays retribution, only that He does not postpone it to the next world.27 Rather he makes sure to dispense justice in this world.
The suffering of Iyyov
  • Rambam explains that once Iyyov attained a strong understanding of Hashem he himself acknowledged that true happiness is not related to physical good, but to recognition of God. As such, any physical harm that had come to him was insignificant. As evidence he points to Iyyov's words, "לְשֵׁמַע אֹזֶן שְׁמַעְתִּיךָ וְעַתָּה עֵינִי רָאָתְךָ עַל כֵּן אֶמְאַס וְנִחַמְתִּי עַל עָפָר וָאֵפֶר".
  • This position might also explain that the book ends with Iyyov not only regaining all he lost, but being rewarded with more than he had at the outset.  This proves that over one's lifetime Hashem compensates for any suffering, evening out the score before death. However, one might question if the anguish caused by loss is really undone when that loss is replaced (even if it is replaced by something more valuable).28
Exile and enslavement in Egypt – This position could suggest that the exile and bondage actually had many hidden benefits: preventing assimilation, instilling empathy, fostering unity and erasing class distinctions. In addition, the experience served to purify the people so they would merit to receive the Torah and the Land of Israel.29  However, as many of these benefits relate only to the nation as a whole, rather than to individuals, the question of individual justice remains.30
Prophetic complaintsR. ChananelShemot 5:22About R. Bachya b. Asher and. R. Saadia GaonHaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:2-3HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 8:2HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9:1About R. Saadia Gaon. suggest that when Moshe and Yirmeyahu question Hashem regarding why the righteous continue to suffer while the wicked prosper,31 Hashem reassures them that everyone will get their just compensation in the near future,32 and that the present delay will allow for a doubling of both the punishment of the wicked and reward of the righteous.33 This accords with this general approach, that compensation does come in this world and what originally might appear as unfair is evened out later.
Afflictions of love – Ralbag suggests that afflictions of love refer to those afflictions which contain a hidden good,34 prevent a worse evil, or enable a person to merit rewards later in life. Though they might initially appear to be a case of "צדיק ורע לו", they are actually "לטוב לו".
Dynamics of Divine justice – This approach understands Divine justice to mean that everyone is rewarded or punished exactly according to their deeds, in this world.
Difficulties with this approach – There are certain hardships which are very difficult to understand as being blessings in disguise.  What hidden good did an individual who suffered and died at the hands of the Nazis receive?

Just Compensation in the World to Come

People do not get their just compensation in this world.  It is only in the World to Come that Hashem gives everyone their appropriate due. The position subdivides regarding the reason why true compensation is delayed:

Natural Order and General Providence

Since this world is usually run via natural order, and retribution is meted out according to the majority, at times an individual receives undeserved retribution.

Divine providence – All these sources testify to the existence of individual Divine providence.  Though they disagree regarding its exact nature, they seem to concur that not all individuals merit it to the same degree. They suggest39 that the more righteous one is (or the more in line with the Active Intellect), the more providence one will receive.40
Natural order – These sources claim that, Hashem's providence notwithstanding, this world is generally run via natural law,41 and not such providence.  Thus, in this world, individuals might be harmed by, or benefit from, the vicissitudes of nature unrelated to their particular merits.42 Only a person who is so righteous that he merits Divine intervention to overturn nature will be protected from undeserved chance disasters.43
Sharing the fate of the collective – A corollary of the above is the idea that since, in this world, general providence takes precedence, the world is "judged according to the majority".44  Thus, often individuals might share the fate of the many, even if undeserving.  If the majority of the nation deserves punishment, the few righteous individuals within will suffer as well,45 while if the community deserves blessings, the few wicked will reap the reward with them.46
Verses in Torah which promise retribution or reward – Many verses47 promise physical rewards or punishments which appear to refer to compensation in this world,48 and as such present a difficulty for this position:
  • R. Crescas responds that the retribution spoken about in the verses is for the collective, and refers to national rather than individual rewards. This works with the vast majority of blessings/curses in Torah, which are indeed collective in nature.49  However, Devarim 29:17-20 explicitly refers to individuals and states that they will receive the curses of Parashat Ki Tavo, suggesting that, at least, these blessings/curses refer to the individual.50
  • Other promises such as "לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ" in Shemot 20 and Devarim 22 are understood to refer to the next world.51
The World to Come – According to this position, the existence of suffering in this world (and the assumption of Hashem's justice) is one of the strongest proofs that a World to Come exists.52 Moreover, since the World to Come is the ultimate goal, it is not problematic that justice is deferred until then.53
Immediate punishment of the sinner in Devarim 7:10 – Devarim 7:10 appears to promise that punishment is not deferred, posing a significant difficulty for this position.  These sources could suggest that the verse is speaking on a national level.54 Alternatively, they could explain, as do Ibn KaspiDevarim 7:10About R. Yosef ibn Kaspi and R. Reggio, that the verse does not mean to say that Hashem always gives immediate retribution, but rather that this is one of Hashem's many modes of justice.55
Exile and enslavement in Egypt – These sources disagree regarding the reason for the bondage in Egypt:
  • Punishment – Ramban, Ralbag56and Abarbanel suggest that it was punishment for sin (and thus not an example of undeserved retribution).57
  • Afflictions of Love – The Ran and R. Crescas view it as afflictions of love (see their position below).
  • Natural order – Abarbanel58 also raises the possibility that it was merely the result of natural processes and human choices.  The brothers sold Yosef of their own free will, setting forth a process which led them to descend to Egypt and all that followed.
"פֹּקֵד עֲוֺן אָבוֹת עַל בָּנִים" – Ralbag maintains that this principle, too, is the result of natural order.  It refers to the collateral damage naturally suffered by a child due to parental misdeeds. For instance, if a parent commits a crime and is fined that he lose his property, the child by default will suffer as well.
The present exile – According to Ralbag, the present exile is another example of collateral damage.  Our ancestors sinned, forcing them out of the land and leaving many generations to continue to suffer in exile as a consequence.  Though many descendants on their own might not deserve exile, they might also not merit enough individual providence to be returned to Israel.
Afflictions of love – Most of these sources combine this approach with the idea that sometimes suffering is a result of "afflictions of love".  See next position for elaboration.

Individual Providence and Afflictions of Love

In this world righteous people might suffer while the wicked prosper for a variety of reasons related to Hashem's individual providence, chief among them "afflictions of love."

Individual providence: ensuring proper compensation – R. Saadia suggests that souls enjoy either total reward, or total punishment in the next world. Yet, no one is totally perfect or wicked, so Hashem makes sure to compensate for all of a righteous person's sins and all of a wicked person's good deeds already in this world.59  Thus, Hashem's providence ensures that no deed goes unrequited and justice prevails.  Ironically, this justice is simultaneously the chief cause of the illusion of injustice.60
Afflictions of love – According to many of these sources, the suffering of the righteous in this world should be understood as "afflictions of love". They differ, though, in their understanding both of the purpose of such afflictions, and whether or not they come even without sin:
  • Increase reward  – Rashi, R. Chananel, R. Bachya,61 and R"Y Albo suggest that sometimes afflictions affect an innocent person, only so that he will merit more reward in the next world.62 [The person's tormentors simultaneously earn a bigger punishment.] 
  • Improve a person – Ran and R. Chasdai agree that afflictions come even without sin, but explain that their purpose is to humble a person or distance him from the physical desires of this world.  This helps prepare him for spiritual closeness to Hashem. A similar process takes place when Hashem tests a person. Through the test, the person grows and perfects himself.63
  • Proof for others  – R.Saadia,64 Chovot HaLevavot, and R"Y Albo explain that sometimes a righteous person is tested, despite not having sinned, so that others will learn that he acts uprightly out of love of Hashem, and not out of desire for reward or fear of punishment. Such undeserved suffering will be compensated later.
  • Prepare individual for next world – Ramban, in contrast, maintains that afflictions of love, like other suffering, come due to sin.  However, these serve to atone rather than punish,65 cleansing a person from their inadvertent sins66 so as to prepare the soul for the World to Come.  In the time of the Mikdash, a sin offering would have served this purpose, but since its destruction suffering comes in its place.
Participating in the individual providence bestowed on others – Other cases of undeserved retribution occur when the individual is either the recipient of Hashem's Divine providence over another, or a tool used by Hashem to enact justice or mercy on another.
  • Recipient – R. Saadia claims that an undeserving wicked person might be saved due to the prayers of the righteous, as was the case when Lot was saved due to Avraham's pleas. Alternatively, he might benefit from being in the shadow of a righteous person, as when Lavan and Potiphar's homes were blessed due to the presence of Yaakov and Yosef (R"Y Albo).  Conversely, a righteous child might vicariously or collectively suffer for his parent's sins. In all these cases, justice is evened out in the next world.67
  • Tool – A person's punishment might be deferred so that Hashem can use him as a tool to enact vengeance on someone else,68 or to bring good to the world, as through the birth of a righteous child.69 Conversely, a righteous person might suffer so as to atone for the sins of others (R"Y Albo).
The World to Come – R. Saadia asserts that innocent suffering is proof of a World to Come.  Since the two worlds are one continuum, and this world is only a foyer to the next, it is not unjust that retribution can be spread out over both, with full justice only being meted out later. One might nonetheless disagree, expecting that compensation should come where deeds are committed. Rambam further questions why it is just to bring upon someone suffering without cause, even if they are to be compensated for it later.70
Verses which promise reward in this world – As above, these sources might agree with R. Crescas that the rewards mentioned in the Torah relate to the nation as a a whole rather than to the individual.  Only individuals must wait for the next world to receive their true rewards.71
Immediate retribution in Devarim 7 – Many of these sources72 explain that the verse is not a promise to punish the wicked in this world, but rather a promise to pay him in his lifetime for any good deeds he might have done.  This then allows for him to be destroyed in the World to Come.73
The suffering of Iyyov – R. Saadia and R"Y Albo point to Iyyov as an example of someone who was tested through afflictions of love as a sign to those who question the commitment of the righteous.
Suffering servant – R"Y Albo points to the suffering servant of Yeshayahu 53 as an example of a righteous person who suffers for no sins of his own, only so as to atone for the sins of others. Hashem promises, "לָכֵן אֲחַלֶּק לוֹ בָרַבִּים", which Rashi and Malbim explain to refer to his sharing in the portion of the great ones in the World to Come as compensation.
"פֹּקֵד עֲוֺן אָבוֹת עַל בָּנִים" – At times a person can suffer due to the sins of his parents, but if so, he will be compensated for such hardships in the next world.74  See Are Children Punished for Parents' Sins for more.
The exile and enslavement in Egypt – R. Chananel, R. Bachya, Ran, R. Chasdai Crescas and Tzeror HaMor all claim that this was an example of afflictions of love, meant either to increase the reward of the nation or to raise them to higher spiritual levels.  Both R. Bachya and R. Chasdai compare the experience to their contemporary exile and persecution, and attempt to comfort their own generation through their explanations.75  See Purposes of the Egyptian Bondage for elaboration.

Hashem's Ways are Beyond Human Comprehension

Since Hashem's knowledge and providence are different than ours, people cannot always understand Hashem's ways.

Suffering and the Book of Iyyov – According to Rambam this is the message that Elihu tries to teach Iyyov at the end of the book. The description of the Leviathan and other natural wonders was supposed to demonstrate how humans cannot grasp such phenomenon, all the more so understand the ways of Hashem and His providence.
A non-answer? R. Soloveitchik points out that since we can never really know the answer to the question of why people get undeserved retribution in this world, it is more helpful to instead ask, what can we learn from the phenomenon. In the Rav's words, "what obligation does suffering impose on man?"  He answers that afflictions should be used to elevate man, purify him and redeem him. As the Bavli BerakhotBerakhot 5aAbout the Bavli advises, "אם רואה אדם שיסורין באין עליו יפשפש במעשיו"‎.78 One might alternatively suggest that instead of questioning why God allows injustices, we should ask ourselves why we do.79