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Stones of the Choshen

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Overview

The twelve stones of the choshen are named in Shemot 28:17-20. However, since the verses provide no other descriptive information, the identity of almost every stone is heavily debated. In trying to determine which gems are referred to, scholars look for descriptions in other verses in which the stones are mentioned, explore cognate languages for linguistic clues as to the stones' identity, and turn to identifications made by both the Aramaic and Greek translations of Torah. The various translations, however, are not in total agreement, and the identity of many of the Aramaic and Greek names are disputed.¹ Bemidbar Rabbah provides further clues, as it lists the color of many of the stones, but as this is a relatively late source, it might be less reliable. Given the many unknowns, it is not surprising that multiple possible identifications have been raised for almost every stone.

אֹדֶם

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13).
• Etymology – The word "אֹדֶם" relates to the color "אדום", meaning red.
• Translations – All the Aramaic translations render "אֹדֶם" fairly literally, as "סמקן" or "סמוקתא", meaning reddish. The Septuagint translates it as sardius,² generally identified as the orange-red gemstone, carnelian.  Based on the archaeological evidence, this stone was very popular in ancient times.³  Others suggest that sardius might instead refer to red jasper.⁴
• Possible Identifications – A reddish stone, likely carnelian, but perhaps red jasper.⁵

פִּטְדָה

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden in Yechezkel 28:13, and also in Iyyov 28:19 where it is referred to as "פִּטְדַת כּוּשׁ", suggesting that it originated in or was imported from Egypt (Ethiopia).
• Etymology – The word פִּטְדָה might be a loan word from Sanskrit where pita means yellow, or it could be related to the Assyrian hipindu, which means "flashing" stone.⁶
• Translations – The Aramaic Targumim render "פִּטְדָה" as "ירקן" or "ירקתא", pointing to a green gem,⁷ while the Septuagint identifies it as topazius.⁸ Based on descriptions by Pliny the Elder,⁹ many scholars assume that this refers to olivine (also known as peridot), a stone with a yellow-green color.¹⁰ The ancient source of peridot was the Island of Zabargad (modern St. John's Island) in the Red Sea, under the control of Egypt,¹¹ matching Iyyov's reference to "פִּטְדַת כּוּשׁ". Others, however, raise the possibility that the Greek topazius refers to the modern gem known as topaz,¹² and point to yellow variety of the stone.
• Possible Identifications – A greenish-yellow stone, likely olivine (peridot), or perhaps yellow topaz.

בָרֶקֶת

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden in Yechezkel 28:13.
• Etymology – The word "בָרֶקֶת" might relate to "ברק", lightning, referring to something that shines.  In Assyrian the word baraqu similarly means to flash, while burruqu means flushed or red-faced and red-haired.¹³ 
• Translations – Aramaic translations render "בָרֶקֶת" fairly literally,¹⁴ echoing that the rock sparkled or was particularly shiny. This fits a carbuncle such as the red garnet which has an unusually high refractive index, making it exceptionally bright.¹⁵ The Septuagint,¹⁶ in contrast, translates the word as smaragdos, often understood to be an emerald or other green stone. As the hardness of emeralds makes them difficult to engrave, a better identification might be malachite,¹⁷ an opaque, green banded gem.¹⁸
• Additional data – Bemidbar Rabbah2:7About Bemidbar Rabbah describes the gem as having black, white, and red bands, suggesting that it is some sort of agate or onyx.
• Possible identifications – Carbuncle (perhaps a red garnet), a green stone such as emerald or malakhite, or a banded stone such as agate or onyx.

נֹפֶךְ

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned with regards to the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), and also in Yechezkel 27:16, in the context of the merchandise of Aram.
• Etymology – R. Saadia and Rashi¹⁹ relate נֹפֶךְ to the word "פוך", a stone mentioned alongside other precious gems in Yeshayahu 54:11 and Divrei HaYamim I 29:2.²⁰ Both Melakhim II 9:30 and Yirmeyahu 4:30 imply that it was a source of eye make-up, assumed to be blue (or black)²¹ in color. The word might also relate to the Egyptian mfkt, referring to a greenish-blue stone such as turquoise or to malachite,²² These would both match the association with "פוך" and the former recalls Bemidbar Rabbah2:7About Bemidbar Rabbah's description of the stone as being "the color of the sky".
• Translations - Targum OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos translates "נֹפֶךְ" as "אִזְמַרַגְדִּין",‎²³ generally understood to refer to an emerald (or a similar green gem), while the Septuagint refers to it as anthrax, which, like the English word carbuncle, means coal, and refers to a stone the color of burning embers,²⁴ such as a ruby²⁵or red garnet.²⁶
• Possible identifications – Emerald (or another green stone), ruby or red garnet, turquoise.

סַפִּיר

• Possible identifications – Sapphire, lapis lazuli
• Biblical verses – The סַפִּיר is mentioned in many verses²⁷ but the most helpful source in terms of identifying the stone is Shemot 24:10.  In describing the vision of Hashem seen by the elders, it reads, "וְתַחַת רַגְלָיו כְּמַעֲשֵׂה לִבְנַת הַסַּפִּיר וּכְעֶצֶם הַשָּׁמַיִם לָטֹהַר"‎,²⁸ suggesting that the סַפִּיר might be either white²⁹ or the color of a pure blue sky.
• Translations – 

יָהֲלֹם

• Possible identifications – Green quartz or jasper, clear crystal quartz, moonstone
• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28 and 39) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28).
• Additional data – 

לֶשֶׁם

• Possible identifications – Amber, jacinth, turquoise
• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen.
• Additional data –

שְׁבוֹ

• Possible identifications – Agate, turquoise, jet
• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen.
• Additional data – 

אַחְלָמָה

• Possible identifications – Sardonyx, amethyst, red jasper
• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen.
• Additional data – 

שֹׁהַם

• Possible identifications – Beryl (emerald or aquamarine), clear crystal quartz, sardonyx, onyx, carnelian
• Biblical verses – The gem is mentioned with regards to the Choshen (Shemot 28:20, 39:13), the stones of Eden (Yechezkel 28) and the Efod, where it is named as the stones upon which were inscribed the names of all the tribes  (Shemot 28:9).³⁰ Bereshit 2:12 shares that אֶרֶץ הַחֲוִילָה contained both "שֹׁהַם" and "בְּדֹלַח" and Iyyov 28 writes that wisdom cannot be valued with either it or the סַפִּיר.
• Additional data – 

תַּרְשִׁישׁ

• Possible identifications – Yellow-gold topaz, amber, aquamarine,
• Biblical verses – 
• Additional data – 

יָשְׁפֵה

• Possible identifications – Jasper, pearl, opal
• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28 and 39) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28).
• Additional data – 

¹ Several books from the Second Temple period which discuss various gemstones can be very helpful in identifying the Greek names, as they often include descriptions of the various stones, including their color, hardness, translucence, place of origin and the like.  Among these are the work of the Greek botanist, Theophrastus, On Stones, and Pliny the Elder's Natural History (Book 37).

² This is also Josephus' translation in his Wars of the Jews, but in his Antiquities of the Jews, he identifies the stone as sardonyx.

³ See

⁴ See, for example, G. F. Kunz, The Curious Lore of Precious Stones, (New York, 1913), who suggests that in Ancient Egypt this was the more common stone.  Cf. J. Harrell, "Old Testament Gemstones : A Philological, Geological, and Archaeological Assessment of the Septuagint", Bulletin for Biblical Research 21.2 (2011):141-172, who points to descriptions of sardius by Theophrastus and Pliny the Elder which might match jasper.

⁵ See also R. Bachya and Abarbanel who identify אודם as a ruby, another red gem. However, see Kunz (ibid) and R"Y Yankelovitz, "זיהוי אבני החושן על פי תרגום השבעים והתרגומים הארמיים", in חצי גבורים-פליטת סופרים, vol. 10 (2017): 478-541, who point out that, based on the archaeological evidence, it is doubtful whether rubies were known in the Near East in the time of the Exodus.

⁶ See E. G. Hirsch, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), entry: Gems,  M. Malul, Olam HaTanakh Shemot (Tel Aviv, 1993): 169, and S.V. Meschel, "The Gems in the High Priest's Breastplate: A Pragmatic Review", Jewish Bible Quarterly 46:4 (2018).

⁷ See also Bemidbar Rabbah2:7About Bemidbar Rabbah, R. BachyaShemot 28:15About R. Bachya b. Asher and AbarbanelShemot 28:6About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel (when reviewing the opinions of others) who all also claim that the stone was green. See also R Saadia Gaon who identifies the gem as "זמרד", an Arabic word which generally refers to emeralds, but might also refer other green stones.

⁸ See also Shemot Rabbah38:8About Shemot Rabbah which writes, "שמפוזין" which might refer to topazius as well (with the "ש" replacing the "ט"). R"Y Yankelovitz (cited above) raises the possibility that the words טופז(יון) and פטדה might be related, with the "פ" and "ט" switching places and the "ז" replacing the "ד" (a common exchange).

⁹ See his Natural History 37:32:109, where he describes it as resembling the "colouring principle of the leek".

¹⁰ As the stone is translucent, this choice might also fit the description emerging from the Assyrian "hipindu", as a  "flashing" or shimmering stone.

¹¹ See J. Harrell (ibid, p.162), who points to several ancient sources from as early as the second century BCE who associate topazius with an island in the Red Sea. A legend relayed by Pliny the Elder (Natural History 37:9:24) also suggests that it originated there.

¹² See the discussion in G. F. Kunz, cited above.

¹³ See The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago vol. 2 (Chicago, 1998): 103-4, 332.

¹⁴ Targum OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos writes, "בָרְקָן", Targum NeofitiShemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti) has "ברקתה", and Targum Yerushlami (Yonatan)Shemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan) has "ברקתא".

¹⁵ See R. BachyaShemot 28:15About R. Bachya b. Asher and AbarbanelShemot 28:6About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel who both agree with this identification. R. Bachya even suggests that this was the stone that Noach put in the ark to provide light due to its extreme brilliance. As  red garnets were found in both Egypt and Sinai in ancient times, these are a logical candidate for the gem.

¹⁶ See also Josephus and the Vulgate.

¹⁷ Malachite, though, is not known for its brightness, and thus, might not be the best fit for the Hebrew "ברקת".

¹⁸ J. Harrell, (ibid, p.161), pointing to descriptions of smaragdos by Theophrastus also raises the possibility that the Greek might refers to turquoise, a green-blue stone.

¹⁹ See also Shadal.

²⁰ Ibn Ezra argues against the association, pointing out that the the "נ" of "נפך" appears to be part of the root. See, though, R"Y Yankelovitz (ibid) who attempts to bring textual support for identifying the two stones.

²¹ See R. Saadia as cited by Ibn EzraShemot Second Commentary 28:9About R. Avraham ibn Ezra.

²² See M. Malul, Ginzburg and Meschel cited above.

²³ See R. BachyaShemot 28:15About R. Bachya b. Asher who also suggests that the stone was green.

²⁴ See also Targum Yerushalmi and Neofiti who write, "כדכדינה", which has been understood by some to refer to a red stone as well. [See Emil G. Hirsch, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), entry: Gems.] JosephusAntiquities of the Jews 3:7:5Wars of the Jews 5:5:7About Josephus and the Vulgate also refer to נופך as carbuncle, as does Chizkuni.

²⁵ See above, though, that it is doubtful whether rubies were found in the time of Tanakh.

²⁶ R"Y Yankelovitz notes that this is exactly the opposite of the translations given for ברקת where it was the Aramaic translators who identified the stone as a red gem such as carbuncle, and the Greek translations which identified it as emerald.  This leads him to suggest that one of the two translators simply erred and accidentally switched the order of his identifications. He assumes that the error is in the Septuagint and brings several arguments to support his hypothesis. According to his analysis, then, it is agreed among both the Aramaic and Greek translations that ברקת refers to a bright red stone and that נופך refers to a green one.

²⁷ See Yeshayahu 54:11, Yechezkel 1:26, 10:1, Iyyov 28:6,16, Shir HaShirim 5:14 and Eikhah 4:7.

²⁸ In Yechezkel's "vision of the chariot" he similarly describes Hashem's throne as "כְּמַרְאֵה אֶבֶן סַפִּיר" (Yechezkel 1:26, 10:1).

²⁹ This depends on how one understands the word "לִבְנַת".  It might refer to a brick (from לבנה) and not to whiteness.

³⁰ See also Shemot 25:7, 35:9, 27 amd Divrei HaYamim I 29:2 which all speak of gathering the stone among materials to be used for the Mishkan / Mikdash.