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Stones of the Choshen

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Overview

The twelve stones of the choshen are named in Shemot 28:17-20¹. However, since the verses provide no other descriptive information, the identity of almost every stone is heavily debated. In trying to determine which gems are referred to, scholars look for descriptions in other verses in which the stones are mentioned, explore cognate languages for linguistic clues as to the stones' identity, and turn to identifications made by both the Aramaic and Greek translations of Torah. The various translations, however, are not in total agreement, and the identity of many of the Aramaic and Greek names are disputed.² Bemidbar Rabbah provides further clues, as it lists the color of many of the stones, but as this is a relatively late source, it is less reliable. Finally, archaeological and geological investigations regarding the availability and use of gems in Egypt and Sinai during the period of the Exodus help to narrow the possibilities. Given the many unknowns, it is not surprising that multiple possible identifications have been raised for almost every stone.

אֹדֶם

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13).
• Linguistic analysis – The word "אֹדֶם" relates to the color "אדום", meaning red.
• Translations – All the Aramaic translations render "אֹדֶם" fairly literally, as "סמקן" or "סמוקתא", meaning reddish. The Septuagint translates it as sardius,³ generally identified as the orange-red gemstone, carnelian, which, based on the archaeological evidence, was very popular in ancient times.⁴  Others suggest that sardius might instead refer to red jasper.⁵
• Possible Identifications – A reddish stone, likely carnelian, but perhaps red jasper.⁶

פִּטְדָה

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), and also in Iyyov 28:19 where it is referred to as "פִּטְדַת כּוּשׁ", suggesting that it originated in or was imported from Egypt (Ethiopia).
• Linguistic analysis – The word פִּטְדָה might be a loan word from Sanskrit where pita means yellow, or it could be related to the Assyrian hipindu, which means "flashing" stone.⁷
• Translations – The Aramaic Targumim render "פִּטְדָה" as "ירקן" or "ירקתא", pointing to a green gem,⁸ while the Septuagint identifies it as topazius.⁹ Based on descriptions by Pliny the Elder,¹⁰ many scholars assume that this refers to olivine (also known as peridot), a stone with a yellow-green color.¹¹ The ancient source of peridot was the Island of Zabargad (modern St. John's Island) in the Red Sea, under the control of Egypt,¹² matching Iyyov's reference to "פִּטְדַת כּוּשׁ". Others, however, raise the possibility that the Greek topazius refers to the modern gem known as topaz,¹³ and point to yellow variety of the stone.
• Possible Identifications – A greenish-yellow stone, likely olivine (peridot), or perhaps yellow topaz.

בָרֶקֶת

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13).
• Linguistic analysis – The word "בָרֶקֶת" might relate to "ברק", lightning, referring to something that shines.  In Assyrian the word baraqu similarly means to flash, while burruqu means flushed or red-faced and red-haired.¹⁴ Taken together, these might suggest a brilliant red stone.
• Translations – Aramaic translations render "בָרֶקֶת" fairly literally,¹⁵ echoing that the rock sparkled or was particularly shiny. This fits a carbuncle such as the red garnet which has an unusually high refractive index, making it exceptionally bright.¹⁶ The Septuagint,¹⁷ in contrast, translates the word as smaragdos, often understood to be an emerald or other green stone. As the hardness of emeralds makes them difficult to engrave, a better identification might be malachite, an opaque, green banded gem, or perhaps turquoise, a greenish-blue stone.¹⁸
• Additional data – Bemidbar Rabbah2:7About Bemidbar Rabbah describes the gem as having black, white, and red bands, suggesting that it is some sort of agate or onyx.
• Possible identifications – Carbuncle (perhaps a red garnet), a green stone such as emerald or malachite, or a banded stone such as agate or onyx.

נֹפֶךְ

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned with regards to the Choshen (Shemot 28:18 and Shemot 39:11) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), and also in Yechezkel 27:16, in the context of the merchandise of Aram.
• Linguistic analysis – R. Saadia and RashiYeshayahu 54:11About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki¹⁹ relate נֹפֶךְ to the word "פוך", a stone mentioned alongside other precious gems in Yeshayahu 54:11 and Divrei HaYamim I 29:2.²⁰ Both Melakhim II 9:30 and Yirmeyahu 4:30 imply that it was a source of eye make-up, assumed to be bluish²¹ in color, suggesting that "נֹפֶךְ" is a blue gem. The word "נֹפֶךְ" might also relate to the Egyptian mfkt, referring to a greenish-blue stone such as turquoise, or perhaps malachite.²² Both of these stones could be a source of eye-paint and the former further matches Bemidbar Rabbah's2:7About Bemidbar Rabbah description of the stone as being "the color of the sky".
• Translations – Targum OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos translates "נֹפֶךְ" as "אִזְמַרַגְדִּין",‎²³ generally understood to refer to a green gem²⁴ such as an emerald or malachite, while the Septuagint refers to it as anthrax, which, like the English word carbuncle, means coal, and refers to a stone the color of burning embers,²⁵ such as a ruby²⁶or red garnet.²⁷
• Possible identifications – A blue-green stone such as turquoise, an emerald or other green stone such as a malachite, a red stone such as a ruby or red garnet.

סַפִּיר

• Biblical verses – The סַפִּיר is mentioned in many verses²⁸ but the most helpful source in terms of identifying the stone is Shemot 24:10.  In describing the vision of Hashem seen by the elders, it reads, "וְתַחַת רַגְלָיו כְּמַעֲשֵׂה לִבְנַת הַסַּפִּיר וּכְעֶצֶם הַשָּׁמַיִם לָטֹהַר"‎,²⁹ suggesting that the סַפִּיר might be either white³⁰ or the color of a pure blue sky.
• Translations – The various Aramaic and Greek translations (as well as many later sources) are fairly close to the Hebrew, rendering the stone as ספרינה or sapphirus‎.³¹  Many have identified the gem with the modern sapphire,³² a sky-blue colored gem, but despite the similarity in name, it seems that a different stone is referred to, as the modern gem was not known in the Mediterranean region until Roman times.³³ A second, perhaps better identification emerges from the descriptions of both Theophrastus³⁴ and Pliny³⁵ who describe sapphirus‎ as an opaque blue stone³⁶ with golden specks, matching the gem lapis lazuli.³⁷
• Possible identifications – Likely lapis lazuli, though some have suggested sapphire.

יָהֲלֹם

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:18 and Shemot 39:11) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13).
• Linguistic analysis – "יָהֲלֹם" might relate to the root "הלם" which means to strike or hammer.  This would suggest that the stone was on the harder side and used for cutting other gems, or perhaps to start fires by striking pyrite. This might point to a quartz which ranks 7 on the Mohs scale of hardness and was commonly used to start fires in ancient times.  Alternatively, the word might be connected to the root "הלל", meaning to shine, which might point specifically to a clear variety of quartz. Others³⁸ have suggested that the word might be related to the gemstone known in Akkadian as ḫulālu, whose description might match that of moonstone or another milky white gem.³⁹
• Translations – Though the modern translation of "יָהֲלֹם" is diamond,⁴⁰ this is an unlikely identification as the art of cutting diamonds was unknown in Biblical times and they were not found in the Mediterranean region until the Roman period.⁴¹ OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos translates "יָהֲלֹם" as "סַבְהֲלוֹם" , while Targum Neofiti Shemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)and Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary)Shemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary) write "עין עגלה".  Neither of these names are easily identifiable.⁴² The Septuagint, in contrast, identifies the gem as iaspis,⁴³ which, from ancient descriptions, appears to refer to quartz or jasper,⁴⁴ likely of a shade of green.⁴⁵
• Possible identifications – Clear or green quartz, jasper, or moonstone

לֶשֶׁם

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:19 and Shemot 39:12).
• Linguistic analysis – The Hebrew לשם might be related to the Egyptian nšm(t), identified by some as the bluish-green feldspar (amazonite).⁴⁶
• Translations – Targum OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos and Yerushalmi (Yonatan)Shemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan) translate "לֶשֶׁם" as "קנכירי" / "קנכירינון", while the Septuagint reads lyncurion or ligurios.  These might be variations of the same word with the Aramaic inserting a ק in place of the ל.  The Greek word has been understood to refer either to amber, fossilized pine resin which is yellow-orange in color,⁴⁷ or to jacinth, a reddish-yellow zirkon.⁴⁸ 
• Possible identifications – Amber, jacinth, amazonite⁴⁹

שְׁבוֹ

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:19 and Shemot 39:12).
• Linguistic analysis – The word "שְׁבוֹ" might be related to the Assyrian šubû, referring to agate, a striped stone.⁵⁰
• Translations – The Septuagint's translation of achate matches the identification above of agate.⁵¹ Targum OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos and Yerushalmi (Yonatan)Shemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan), on the other hand, identify the stone as "‎טרקין" / "טרקיא".‎⁵²  Some associate this with turquoise,⁵³ while others suggest that it refers to the "Thracian stone" (a stone from טרקיא), assumed by some to be the black gem, jet,⁵⁴ a fossilized wood that is a precursor to coal.⁵⁵
• Possible identifications – Agate, turquoise, jet

אַחְלָמָה

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:19 and Shemot 39:12).
• Linguistic Analysis –  Etymologically, the word might be related to "החלמה", strength or health.⁵⁶  If the stone is identified as an amethyst (see below), this might relate to the belief that the gem had certain health benefits and could protect against drunkenness.⁵⁷  Alternatively, "אַחְלָמָה" relates to the Egyptian ḫnm(t), understood to be a stone with a reddish-orange hue, such as red jasper.⁵⁸
• Translations – Targum Onkelos and Yerushalmi (Yonatan) translate "אַחְלָמָה" as "עין עגלא", whose identity is debated, but Z. Amar⁵⁹ suggests that it might refer to sardonyx, a stone comprising bands of color, sometimes with a dark center and paler surroundings, giving it the appearance of an eye.⁶⁰ The Septuagint, in contrast, defines it as amethystos, or an amethyst. This is in line with Bemidbar Rabbah's2:7About Bemidbar Rabbah description of a stone "similar to clear wine whose redness is not too strong".
• Possible identifications – Sardonyx, amethyst, red jasper

תַּרְשִׁישׁ

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned both in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:20 and Shemot 39:13) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), but it is its other appearances in Tanakh which are most helpful for identification purposes. Shir HaShirim 5:14 and Daniel 10:6 both associate the word with glowing materials such as gold, fire, or lightning,⁶¹ suggesting that the stone was a yellow or gold gem, perhaps topaz or amber.⁶²

• Linguistic Analysis – The stone's name might relate to the place Tarshish, perhaps where the stone originated, or to the Akkadian rašāšu, which means to glow.
• Translations – The Aramaic translations all refer to the stone as "כרום ימא", suggesting a stone the color of the sea,⁶³ perhaps aquamarine or lapis lazuli, a blue stone with specks of gold. [The latter possibility has the advantage of relating to the golden associations in the various verses.] The Septuagint, in contrast, renders the word as "chrysolithos," referring to a yellow-gold gem, perhaps topaz or citrine, a type of yellow quartz.⁶⁴
• Possible identifications – A golden-yellow gem such as topaz, amber, or citrine, or a blue gem such as aquamarine or lapis-lazuli.

שֹׁהַם There is much debate regarding the identity of this stone:

• Biblical verses – Outside the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:20 and Shemot 39:13) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), the gem is also mentioned  in connection to the Efod (Shemot 28:9), where it is named as the stones upon which were inscribed the names of all the tribes.⁶⁵  Bereshit 2:12 further shares that it was found in אֶרֶץ הַחֲוִילָה, together with the "בְּדֹלַח", and Iyyov 28:16 writes that wisdom cannot be valued with either it or the סַפִּיר.
• Linguistic analysis – Etymologically, the word "שֹׁהַם" might be related to the Akkadian sāmtu(m), meaning reddish, suggesting that the stone is red in color, perhaps a carnelian or red sardonyx.
• Translations - Both Targum OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos and the Septuagint render "שֹׁהַם" as "בורלא" or beryllios,⁶⁶ presumably referring to beryl, a family of stones which includes emeralds⁶⁷ and aquamarine.⁶⁸ However, since beryl is a very hard rock which would be difficult to engrave, some question this identification.⁶⁹ Targum YerushalmiShemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary), in contrast, reads "בדולחא" which might refer to rock crystal.⁷⁰ However, Bereshit 2:12's mention of both "בְּדֹלַח" and "שֹׁהַם" in the same verse would argue against identifying the two. Josephus adds two more possibilities, identifying the שהם stones on the Efod as sardonyx⁷¹ and those in the breastplate as onyx. [See also Bemidbar Rabbah which describes the stone as black in color, matching a black onyx].
• Possible identifications – A red stone such as carnelian or sardonyx, a beryl such as emeralds or aquamarine, rock crystal, or onyx.

יָשְׁפֵה

• Possible identifications – Jasper, pearl, opal
• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13).
• Linguistic analysis – The word is etymologically related to the Akkadian yašpû, Arabic "יַשְׁבֻּ", and Greek iaspis all referring to jasper, an opaque gem with patterns of color running through it.
• Translations - Targum OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos translates it as "פַנְתֵּירִי", panther, perhaps also referring to jasper, maybe to a pale yellow variety with bands of orange or brown.⁷² A third possibility is raised by the Septuagint, who identifies the stone as onychion, understood to be an onyx. It is described by Theophrastus as being black and white and by Pliny as having many shades of colors. This might Bemidbar Rabbah which writes that "יָשְׁפֵה" is "similar to all the colors". This aptly describes an opal, a multicolored, often iridescent gem.

¹ See also the parallel listing in Shemot 39:10-14

² Several books from the Second Temple period which discuss various gemstones can be very helpful in identifying the Greek names, as they often include descriptions of the various stones, including their color, hardness, translucence, place of origin and the like.  Among these are the work of the Greek botanist, Theophrastus, On Stones, and Pliny the Elder's Natural History (Book 37).

³ This is also Josephus' translation in his Wars of the Jews, but in his Antiquities of the Jews, he identifies the stone as sardonyx.  Cf. Chizkuni who writes "שרדנא", likely also referring to sardius and Shemot Rabbah who identifies it as "שָׁדַרְגָּנִין," perhaps also referring to the stone.

⁴ See R"Y Yankelevitz, "זיהוי אבני החושן על פי תרגום השבעים והתרגומים הארמיים", in חצי גבורים-פליטת סופרים, vol. 10 (2017): 498.

⁵ See, for example, G. F. Kunz, The Curious Lore of Precious Stones, (New York, 1913), who suggests that in Ancient Egypt this was the more common stone.  Cf. J. Harrell, "Old Testament Gemstones : A Philological, Geological, and Archaeological Assessment of the Septuagint", Bulletin for Biblical Research 21.2 (2011):141-172, who points to descriptions of sardius by Theophrastus and Pliny the Elder which might match jasper.

⁶ See also R. Bachya and Abarbanel who identify אודם as a ruby, another red gem. However, see Kunz (ibid) and R"Y Yankelevitz, (ibid), who point out that it is doubtful whether rubies were known in the Near East in the time of the Exodus.

⁷ See E. G. Hirsch, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), entry: Gems and M. Malul, Olam HaTanakh Shemot (Tel Aviv, 1993): 169.

⁸ See also Bemidbar Rabbah2:7About Bemidbar Rabbah, R. BachyaShemot 28:15About R. Bachya b. Asher and AbarbanelShemot 28:6About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel (when reviewing the opinions of others) who all also claim that the stone was green. See also R Saadia Gaon who identifies the gem as "זמרד", an Arabic word which generally refers to emeralds, but might also refer other green stones.

⁹ See also Shemot Rabbah38:8About Shemot Rabbah which writes, "שמפוזין" which might refer to topazius as well (with the "ש" replacing the "ט"). R"Y Yankelevitz (cited above) raises the possibility that the words טופז(יון) and פטדה might be related, with the "פ" and "ט" switching places and the "ז" replacing the "ד" (a common exchange).

¹⁰ See his Natural History 37:32:109, where he describes it as resembling the "colouring principle of the leek".

¹¹ As the stone is translucent, this choice might also fit the description emerging from the Assyrian "hipindu", as a  "flashing" or shimmering stone.

¹² See J. Harrell (ibid, p.162), who points to several ancient sources from as early as the second century BCE who associate topazius with an island in the Red Sea. A legend relayed by Pliny the Elder (Natural History 37:9:24) also suggests that it originated there.

¹³ See the discussion in G. F. Kunz, cited above.

¹⁴ See The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago vol. 2 (Chicago, 1998): 103-4, 332.

¹⁵ Targum OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos writes, "בָרְקָן", Targum NeofitiShemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti) has "ברקתה", and Targum Yerushlami (Yonatan)Shemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan) has "ברקתא".

¹⁶ See R. BachyaShemot 28:15About R. Bachya b. Asher and AbarbanelShemot 28:6About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel who both agree with this identification. R. Bachya even suggests that this was the stone that Noach put in the ark to provide light due to its extreme brilliance. As  red garnets were found in both Egypt and Sinai in ancient times, these are a logical candidate for the gem.

¹⁷ See also Josephus and the Vulgate.

¹⁸ J. Harrell (ibid, p.161) claims that the descriptions of smaragdos by Theophrastus easily match turquoise, and that it was more commonly used in jewelry than was malachite.  It should be noted, though, that neither malachite nor turquoise are known for their luster, and thus, might not be the best fit for the Hebrew "ברקת".

¹⁹ See also Shadal.

²⁰ Ibn EzraShemot First Commentary 28:17-20Shemot Second Commentary 28:9About R. Avraham ibn Ezra argues against the association, pointing out that the the "נ" of "נפך" appears to be part of the root. See, though, R"Y Yankelevitz (ibid) who attempts to bring textual support for identifying the two stones.

²¹ See, though, R. Saadia as cited by Ibn EzraShemot Second Commentary 28:9About R. Avraham ibn Ezra who suggests that it was closer to black.

²² See T. Lambdin, "Egyptian Loan Words in the Old Testament", Journal of the American Oriental Society 73:3 (1953): 152.

²³ See also Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)Shemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan) who writes "איזמורד". 

²⁴ See R. BachyaShemot 28:15About R. Bachya b. Asher who also suggests that the stone was green.

²⁵ See also Shemot Rabbah38:8About Shemot Rabbah who identifies the stone as "בְּרָדִינִין" and Targum Neofiti and  Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary) who write, "כדכדינה", both of which have been understood by some to refer to a red stone as well. [See Emil G. Hirsch, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), entry: Gems.]  However, as Yeshayahu 54:11-12 mentions כדכד  together with פוך, it seems that they are two different stones.   JosephusAntiquities of the Jews 3:7:5Wars of the Jews 5:5:7About Josephus and the Vulgate also refer to נופך as carbuncle, as does ChizkuniShemot 28:17-20About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach.

²⁶ See above, though, that it is doubtful whether rubies were found in the time of Tanakh.

²⁷ R"Y Yankelevitz notes that this is exactly the opposite of the translations given for ברקת where it was the Aramaic translators who identified the stone as a red gem such as carbuncle, and the Greek translations which identified it as a green stone such as emerald.  This leads him to suggest that one of the two translators simply erred and accidentally switched the order of his identifications. He assumes that the error is in the Septuagint and brings several arguments to support his hypothesis. According to his analysis, then, it is agreed among both the Aramaic and Greek translations that ברקת refers to a bright red stone and that נופך refers to a green one.

²⁸ See Yeshayahu 54:11, Yechezkel 1:26, 10:1, Iyyov 28:6,16, Shir HaShirim 5:14 and Eikhah 4:7.

²⁹ In Yechezkel's "vision of the chariot" he similarly describes Hashem's throne as "כְּמַרְאֵה אֶבֶן סַפִּיר" (Yechezkel 1:26, 10:1).

³⁰ R. Saadia identifies the stone as "מהא", understood to be a white or clear crystal and Ibn Ezra explicitly states that R. Saadia thought the stone was white because of the phrase, "לבנת הספיר".  However, it is possible that the word "לִבְנַת" refers to a brick (from לבנה) and not to whiteness.

³¹ Targum NeofitiShemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti) and Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)Shemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan) identify the stone as ספרינה or ספירינון, while the Septuagint (and JosephusAntiquities of the Jews 3:7:5Wars of the Jews 5:5:7About Josephus) has sapphirus.  Shemot Rabbah38:8About Shemot Rabbah similarly writes, "סַנְפִּירִינוֹוּן", while ChizkunShemot 28:17-20About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoachi has "שפיר". Targum OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos reads, "שַׁבְזֵיז", which is difficult to identify.

³² See discussions in D.Ginzberg, "לזהות המינרלוגית של אבני-החושן," Da'at Mikra Shemot (Jerusalem, 1991): appendix, 70-71 and M. Malul, Olam HaTanakh (ibid, p.169).

³³ See. E. G. Hirsch, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), entry: Gems.

³⁴ See On Stones 4:23 and 6:37.

³⁵ See his Natural History 37:39.

³⁶ As the modern sapphire is translucent, they cannot be referring to it.

³⁷ R. Yankelevitz (ibid, p.507) suggests that Iyyov 28:6's description, "מְקוֹם סַפִּיר אֲבָנֶיהָ וְעַפְרֹת זָהָב לוֹ", might allude to this aspect of the gem. The phrase "עַפְרֹת זָהָב לוֹ"  might be referring back to the gold speckled stone (and not the place being discussed, which would have required a feminine referent "לה").

³⁸ See the discussion in J. Harrell, J. Hoffmeier and K. Williams, "Hebrew Gemstones in the Old Testament: A Lexical, Geological, and Archaeological Analysis," Bulletin for Biblical Research 27:1 (2017): 21.

³⁹ Bemidbar Rabbah's description of a white stone might match either of these last two possibilities.  As it identifies the colors of the tribes' flags based on the stones, when writing that Zevulun's flag was "white" it could be assuming that the associated stone was either white or clear (for it would be impossible to color a flag "clear").

⁴⁰ Ibn Ezra'sShemot First Commentary 28:17-20Shemot Second Commentary 28:9About R. Avraham ibn Ezra description of the gem as one "which breaks all other stones" suggests that he, too, had a diamond in mind, and AbarbanelShemot 28:6About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel explicitly refers to it as such.

⁴¹ See J. Harrell, J. Hoffmeier and K. Williams, (ibid, p 20).

⁴² See the discussion below regarding the identity of אחלמה for two possibilities.

⁴³ This might match the translation of Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan), "כדכודין". A variant of this word, כדכוד, appears in Yeshayahu 54:12 where the Septuagint identifies as iaspis, equivalent to the יהלום of this verse.

⁴⁴ The modern word jasper is derived from the ancient iaspis.

⁴⁵ See J. Harrrell (ibid, p.156) who points to descriptions by Theophrastus which imply that the stone was greenish and to Pliny who lists many varieties of iaspis, most of which are some shade of green (or perhaps blue).

⁴⁶ See J. Harrell, J. Hoffmeier and K. Williams, (ibid, p. 22-23).   They point out that a linguistic shift between the Egyptian nun and Hebrew lamed is attested to elsewhere and that descriptions of the stone in Egyptian texts point to feldspar.

⁴⁷ This is based on descriptions by Theophrastrus and Pliny. See Harrell (ibid, p. 157-158) and R. Yankelevitz (ibid, p. 510-512). As amber is a very soft stone (ranking only 2-3 on the Moh's scale of hardness), though, it is questioned how suitable is was to be used as gem on the breastplate.

⁴⁸ See the discussion in Kunz (ibid), Encyclopedia Mikrait 4 (Jeruslaem, 1962): 532-533, and D. Ginsberg (ibid, p.71).

⁴⁹ In the printed versions of Bemidbar Rabbah, the stone is compared to a sapphire, suggesting that it was blue in color, perhaps similar to amazonite or turquoise.  Yet manuscripts of the Midrash instead read "דומה לעספיר" which in Arabic means turmeric, pointing to a golden-yellow color, like amber. [See R. Yankelevitz (ibid, p.512).

⁵⁰ Bemidbar Rabbah's description of the stone being both black and white might refer to agate as well.

⁵¹ Shemot Rabbah's "אָבָאטִיס" might be a corrupted form of "אכאטיס", and also refer to agate.

⁵² Interestingly one of the manuscripts of Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan) reads "ערקין" (rather than "טרקין"), a word which means striped and could easily refer to agate as well.

⁵³ See. E. G. Hirsch, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), entry: Gems. See also R. Bachya who identifies it as "טורקיז״א".

⁵⁴ See also R. Saadia who translates it as "סבג" which means black.

⁵⁵ See R. Kostov, "Notes and Interpretation on the 'Thracian stone' in Ancient Sources," Annual of the University of Mining and Geology, St. Ivan Rilsky 50:I (2007) who raises this among several possible identifications. See also Z. Amar, החן שבאבן: אבני החושן ואבנים טובות בעולם הקדום (מכון הר ברכה, תשע"ז).

⁵⁶ Cf. Ibn Ezra and others who suggest instead that it relates to the word "חלום" or dream, and posit that the gem had some attribute that induced dreams.

⁵⁷ R. Yankelevitz (ibid, p.514) also raises the possibility that the word might stem from the name of an area in Armenia known in Assyrian as"אחלמא".  According to Pliny, Armenia is where amethysts were found, and so perhaps the stone was named after its place of origin.

⁵⁸ See Harrell, Hoffmeier, and Williams (ibid, p.25).

⁵⁹ See his book, החן שבאבן: אבני החושן ואבנים טובות בעולם הקדום (מכון הר ברכה, תשע"ז).

⁶⁰ In contrast, R. Yankelevitz (ibid, p. 513) suggests that this might refer to the amethyst (matching the Greek translation) which Pliny refers to as "the eye of aphrodite," a goddess who was also worshiped in the form of a calf. [Hence, "the eye of aphrodite" might be equivalent to the "eye of the calf / עין עגלא".]

⁶¹ Cf. Yechezkel 1:16 and 10:9, where the chariot's wheels are described as "sparkling" like Tarshish.

⁶² Bemidbar Rabbah declares that the gem was "דּוֹמֶה לְאֶבֶן יְקָרָה שֶׁמִּתְקַשְּׁטוֹת בּוֹ הַנָּשִׁים".  This is difficult to identify, but it is interesting to note that Pliny (Natural History 37:11) speaks of amber as being a gem which "is only in request among women".

⁶³ "כרום" is likely related to the Greek word, "chrom," meaning color.

⁶⁴ Cf. R. Bachya who writes of the gem: "גוון שלה דומה לגוון השמן".

⁶⁵ See also Shemot 25:7, 35:9, 27 and Divrei HaYamim I 29:2 which all speak of gathering the stone among materials to be used for the Mishkan / Mikdash.

⁶⁶ See, though, the Septuagint on Shemot 25:7 and 35:9, where אבני השהם are translated as sardius (see discussion above that this might refer to carnelian), and  the Septuagint on Iyyov 28:16 and Divrei HaYamim I 29:2 which provides a third possibility, rendering שהם there as onyx.

⁶⁷ In fact, on Bereshit 2:11, the Spetuagint renders shoham as a "leek-green stone" and in Shemot 28:9 as "smaragdos" (an emerald or other green stone).

⁶⁸ Pliny (Natual History 37:20: 76–79) writes, "many people consider the nature of berullus to be similar to, if not identical with, that of [smaragdus]”.  He further says that they have a “hexagonal shape” and that high quality berullus has color like the “pure green of the sea".

⁶⁹ See M. Malul (ibid, p.154).

⁷⁰ See also Abarbanel.

⁷¹ This matches the Septuagint's identification of the shoham stones in Divrei HaYamim I 29:2.

⁷² Targum NeofitiShemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)  and Targum YerushalmiShemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary) instead identifies the stone as "מרגליתה" but it is not clear to which gem this refers. Cf. Shemot Rabbah who writes, "מַרְגָלִיטוֹס".