Difference between revisions of "Realia:Stones of the Choshen/0"
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<h2>Overview</h2> | <h2>Overview</h2> | ||
− | <p>The twelve stones of the <i>choshen</i> are named in Shemot 28:17-20. However, since the verses provide no other descriptive information, the identity of almost every stone is heavily debated. In trying to determine which gems are referred to, scholars look for descriptions in other verses in which the stones are mentioned, explore cognate languages for linguistic clues as to the stones' identity, and turn to identifications made by both the Aramaic and Greek translations of Torah. The various translations, however, are not in total agreement, and the identity of many of the Aramaic and Greek names are disputed. Bemidbar Rabbah provides further clues, as it lists the color of many of the stones, but as this is a relatively late source, it | + | <p>The twelve stones of the <i>choshen</i> are named in <a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><fn>See also the parallel listing in <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:10-14</a></fn>. However, since the verses provide no other descriptive information, the identity of almost every stone is heavily debated. In trying to determine which gems are referred to, scholars look for descriptions in other verses in which the stones are mentioned, explore cognate languages for linguistic clues as to the stones' identity, and turn to identifications made by both the Aramaic and Greek translations of Torah. The various translations, however, are not in total agreement, and the identity of many of the Aramaic and Greek names are disputed.<fn>Several books from the Second Temple period which discuss various gemstones can be very helpful in identifying the Greek names, as they often include descriptions of the various stones, including their color, hardness, translucence, place of origin and the like.  Among these are the work of the Greek botanist, Theophrastus, <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjm1p7_yIDlAhVwMewKHSGvCzoQFjAAegQIABAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fkb.osu.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1811%2F32541%2FTHEOPHRASTUS_CALEY.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26gt%3B&usg=AOvVaw1DdD5Qb6gZxfI_Q04VxjlS"><i>On Stone</i>s</a>, and Pliny the Elder's <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D37%3Achapter%3D1"><i>Natural Histor</i>y</a> (Book 37).</fn> Bemidbar Rabbah provides further clues, as it lists the color of many of the stones, but as this is a relatively late source, it is less reliable. Finally, archaeological and geological investigations regarding the availability and use of gems in Egypt and Sinai during the period of the Exodus help to narrow the possibilities. Given the many unknowns, it is not surprising that multiple possible identifications have been raised for almost every stone. For images of the various gems, see <a href="https://mg.alhatorah.org/Dual/Olam_HaMikra/Shemot/28.17#m4e0n6">Olam HaMIkra Shemot 28</a>.</p></div> |
− | + | <category>אֹדֶם | |
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<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li>Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:10</a>) and the stones of Gan Eden (<a href="Yechezkel28-13" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 28:13</a>).</li> | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:10</a>) and the stones of Gan Eden (<a href="Yechezkel28-13" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 28:13</a>).</li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b></b><b>Linguistic analysis</b> – The word "אֹדֶם" relates to the color "אדום", meaning red.</li> |
− | <li>Translations – All the Aramaic translations render "אֹדֶם" fairly literally, as "סמקן" or "סמוקתא", meaning reddish. The Septuagint translates it as <i>sardius,<fn>This is also Josephus' translation in his <a href="JosephusWarsoftheJews5-5-7" data-aht="source">Wars of the Jews</a>, but in his <a href="JosephusAntiquitiesoftheJews3-7-5" data-aht="source">Antiquities of the Jews</a>, he identifies the stone as sardonyx.</fn></i> generally identified as the orange-red gemstone, carnelian | + | <li><b>Translations</b> – All the <a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Aramaic translations</a> render "אֹדֶם" fairly literally, as "סמקן" or "סמוקתא", meaning reddish. The Septuagint translates it as <i>sardius,<fn>This is also Josephus' translation in his <a href="JosephusWarsoftheJews5-5-7" data-aht="source">Wars of the Jews</a>, but in his <a href="JosephusAntiquitiesoftheJews3-7-5" data-aht="source">Antiquities of the Jews</a>, he identifies the stone as sardonyx.  Cf. Chizkuni who writes "שרדנא", likely also referring to <i>sardius</i> and Shemot Rabbah who identifies it as "שָׁדַרְגָּנִין," perhaps also referring to the stone.</fn></i> generally identified as the orange-red gemstone, carnelian, which, based on the archaeological evidence, was very popular in ancient times.<fn>See R"Y Yankelewitz, "זיהוי אבני החושן על פי תרגום השבעים והתרגומים הארמיים", in חצי גבורים-פליטת סופרים, vol. 10 (2017): 498.</fn>  Others suggest that <i>sardius</i> might instead refer to red jasper.<fn>See, for example, G. F. Kunz, <a href="https://archive.org/stream/curiousloreofpre028009mbp/curiousloreofpre028009mbp_djvu.txt">The Curious Lore of Precious Stones</a>, (New York, 1913), who suggests that in Ancient Egypt this was the more common stone.  Cf. J. Harrell, "Old Testament Gemstones : A Philological, Geological, and Archaeological Assessment of the Septuagint", Bulletin for Biblical Research 21.2 (2011):141-172, who points to descriptions of <i>sardius</i> by Theophrastus and Pliny the Elder which might match jasper.</fn></li> |
− | < | + | <li><b>Possible Identifications</b> – A reddish stone, likely carnelian, but perhaps red jasper.<fn>See also R. Bachya and Abarbanel who identify אודם as a ruby, another red gem. However, see Kunz (ibid) and R"Y Yankelewitz, (ibid), who point out that it is doubtful whether rubies were known in the Near East in the time of the Exodus.</fn></li> |
</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | + | </category> | |
− | + | <category>פִּטְדָה | |
<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li>Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:10</a>) and the stones of Gan Eden | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – The stone is mentioned in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:10</a>) and the stones of Gan Eden (<a href="Yechezkel28-13" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 28:13</a>), and also in <a href="Iyyov28-19" data-aht="source">Iyyov 28:19</a> where it is referred to as "פִּטְדַת כּוּשׁ", suggesting that it originated in or was imported from Egypt (Ethiopia).</li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Linguistic analysis</b> – The word פִּטְדָה might be a loan word from Sanskrit where <i>pita</i> means yellow, or it could be related to the Assyrian <i>hipindu</i>, which means "flashing" stone.<fn>See E. G. Hirsch, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), entry: <a href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6574-gems">Gems</a> and M. Malul, Olam HaTanakh Shemot (Tel Aviv, 1993): 169.</fn></li> |
− | <li>Translations – The Aramaic Targumim render "פִּטְדָה" as "ירקן" or "ירקתא", pointing to a green gem,<fn><span class="aht-text">See also </span><multilink><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">Bemidbar Rabbah</a><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">2:7</a><a href="Bemidbar Rabbah" data-aht="parshan">About Bemidbar Rabbah</a></multilink>, <multilink><a href="RBachyaShemot28-15" data-aht="source">R. Bachya</a><a href="RBachyaShemot28-15" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:15</a><a href="R. Bachya b. Asher" data-aht="parshan">About R. Bachya b. Asher</a></multilink> and <multilink><a href="AbarbanelShemot28-6" data-aht="source">Abarbanel</a><a href="AbarbanelShemot28-6" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:6</a><a href="R. Yitzchak Abarbanel" data-aht="parshan">About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel</a></multilink> (when reviewing the opinions of others) who all also claim that the stone was green. See also R Saadia Gaon who identifies the gem as "זמרד", an Arabic word which generally refers to emeralds, but might also refer other green stones.</fn> while the Septuagint identifies it as <i>topazius</i>.<fn>See also <multilink><a href="ShemotRabbah38-8" data-aht="source">Shemot Rabbah</a><a href="ShemotRabbah38-8" data-aht="source">38:8</a><a href="Shemot Rabbah" data-aht="parshan">About Shemot Rabbah</a></multilink> which writes, "שמפוזין" which might refer to<i> topazius</i> as well (with the "ש" replacing the "ט"). R"Y | + | <li><b>Translations</b> – The Aramaic Targumim render "פִּטְדָה" as "ירקן" or "ירקתא", pointing to a green gem,<fn><span class="aht-text">See also </span><multilink><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">Bemidbar Rabbah</a><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">2:7</a><a href="Bemidbar Rabbah" data-aht="parshan">About Bemidbar Rabbah</a></multilink>, <multilink><a href="RBachyaShemot28-15" data-aht="source">R. Bachya</a><a href="RBachyaShemot28-15" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:15</a><a href="R. Bachya b. Asher" data-aht="parshan">About R. Bachya b. Asher</a></multilink> and <multilink><a href="AbarbanelShemot28-6" data-aht="source">Abarbanel</a><a href="AbarbanelShemot28-6" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:6</a><a href="R. Yitzchak Abarbanel" data-aht="parshan">About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel</a></multilink> (when reviewing the opinions of others) who all also claim that the stone was green. See also R Saadia Gaon who identifies the gem as "זמרד", an Arabic word which generally refers to emeralds, but might also refer other green stones.</fn> while the Septuagint identifies it as <i>topazius</i>.<fn>See also <multilink><a href="ShemotRabbah38-8" data-aht="source">Shemot Rabbah</a><a href="ShemotRabbah38-8" data-aht="source">38:8</a><a href="Shemot Rabbah" data-aht="parshan">About Shemot Rabbah</a></multilink> which writes, "שמפוזין" which might refer to<i> topazius</i> as well (with the "ש" replacing the "ט"). R"Y Yankelewitz (cited above) raises the possibility that the words טופז(יון) and פטדה might be related, with the "פ" and "ט" switching places and the "ז" replacing the "ד" (a common exchange).</fn> Based on descriptions by Pliny the Elder,<fn>See his <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D37%3Achapter%3D32">Natural History 37:32:109</a>, where he describes it as resembling the "colouring principle of the leek".</fn> many scholars assume that this refers to olivine (also known as peridot), a stone with a yellow-green color.<fn>As the stone is translucent, this choice might also fit the description emerging from the Assyrian "<i>hipindu</i>", as a  "flashing" or shimmering stone.</fn> The ancient source of peridot was the Island of Zabargad (modern St. John's Island) in the Red Sea, under the control of Egypt,<fn>See J. Harrell (ibid, p.162), who points to several ancient sources from as early as the second century BCE who associate <i>topazius</i> with an island in the Red Sea. A legend relayed by Pliny the Elder (<a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D37%3Achapter%3D9"><i>Natural History</i> 37:9:24</a>) also suggests that it originated there.</fn> matching Iyyov's reference to "פִּטְדַת כּוּשׁ". Others, however, raise the possibility that the Greek<i> topazius</i> refers to the modern gem known as topaz,<fn>See the discussion in G. F. Kunz, cited above.</fn> and point to yellow variety of the stone.</li> |
− | <li>Possible Identifications – A greenish-yellow stone, likely olivine (peridot), or perhaps yellow topaz.</li> | + | <li><b>Possible Identifications</b> – A greenish-yellow stone, likely olivine (peridot), or perhaps yellow topaz.</li> |
</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | + | </category> | |
− | + | <category>בָרֶקֶת | |
<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li>Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:10</a>) and the stones of Gan Eden | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:10</a>) and the stones of Gan Eden (<a href="Yechezkel28-13" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 28:13</a>).</li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Linguistic analysis</b> – The word "בָרֶקֶת" might relate to "ברק", lightning, referring to something that shines.  In Assyrian the word <i>baraqu</i> similarly means to flash, while <i>burruqu</i> means flushed or red-faced and red-haired.<fn>See The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago vol. 2 (Chicago, 1998): 103-4, 332.</fn> Taken together, these might suggest a brilliant red stone.</li> |
− | <li>Translations – Aramaic translations render "בָרֶקֶת" fairly literally,<fn><multilink><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Onkelos</a><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Onkelos" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Onkelos</a></multilink> writes, "בָרְקָן", <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Targum Neofiti</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)</a></multilink> has "ברקתה", and <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Yerushlami (Yonatan)</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)</a></multilink> has "ברקתא".</fn> echoing that the rock sparkled or was particularly shiny. This fits a carbuncle such as the red garnet which has an unusually high refractive index, making it exceptionally bright.<fn>See <multilink><a href="RBachyaShemot28-15" data-aht="source">R. Bachya</a><a href="RBachyaShemot28-15" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:15</a><a href="R. Bachya b. Asher" data-aht="parshan">About R. Bachya b. Asher</a></multilink> and <multilink><a href="AbarbanelShemot28-6" data-aht="source">Abarbanel</a><a href="AbarbanelShemot28-6" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:6</a><a href="R. Yitzchak Abarbanel" data-aht="parshan">About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel</a></multilink> who both agree with this identification. R. Bachya even suggests that this was the stone that Noach put in the ark to provide light due to its extreme brilliance.</fn> The Septuagint,<fn>See also Josephus and the Vulgate.</fn> in contrast, translates the word as <i>smaragdos</i>, often understood to be an emerald or other green stone. As the hardness of emeralds makes them difficult to engrave, | + | <li><b>Translations</b> – Aramaic translations render "בָרֶקֶת" fairly literally,<fn><multilink><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Onkelos</a><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Onkelos" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Onkelos</a></multilink> writes, "בָרְקָן", <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Targum Neofiti</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)</a></multilink> has "ברקתה", and <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Yerushlami (Yonatan)</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)</a></multilink> has "ברקתא".</fn> echoing that the rock sparkled or was particularly shiny. This fits a carbuncle such as the red garnet which has an unusually high refractive index, making it exceptionally bright.<fn>See <multilink><a href="RBachyaShemot28-15" data-aht="source">R. Bachya</a><a href="RBachyaShemot28-15" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:15</a><a href="R. Bachya b. Asher" data-aht="parshan">About R. Bachya b. Asher</a></multilink> and <multilink><a href="AbarbanelShemot28-6" data-aht="source">Abarbanel</a><a href="AbarbanelShemot28-6" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:6</a><a href="R. Yitzchak Abarbanel" data-aht="parshan">About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel</a></multilink> who both agree with this identification. R. Bachya even suggests that this was the stone that Noach put in the ark to provide light due to its extreme brilliance. As  red garnets were found in both Egypt and Sinai in ancient times, these are a logical candidate for the gem.</fn> The Septuagint,<fn>See also Josephus and the Vulgate.</fn> in contrast, translates the word as <i>smaragdos</i>, often understood to be an emerald or other green stone. As the hardness of emeralds makes them difficult to engrave, a better identification might be malachite, an opaque, green banded gem, or perhaps turquoise, a greenish-blue stone.<fn>J. Harrell (ibid, p.161) claims that the descriptions of <i>smaragdos</i> by Theophrastus easily match turquoise, and that it was more commonly used in jewelry than was malachite.  It should be noted, though, that neither malachite nor turquoise are known for their luster, and thus, might not be the best fit for the Hebrew "ברקת".</fn></li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Possible identifications</b> – Carbuncle (perhaps a red garnet) or a green stone such as emerald or malachite.<fn><multilink><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">Bemidbar Rabbah</a><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">2:7</a><a href="Bemidbar Rabbah" data-aht="parshan">About Bemidbar Rabbah</a></multilink> implies that the gem had black, white, and red bands, which does not accord with the suggestions raised by either the Aramaic or Greek translations.  According to the midrash, the stone was likely some sort of banded agate or onyx.</fn></li> |
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</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | + | </category> | |
− | + | <category>נֹפֶךְ | |
<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li>Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned with regards to the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28: | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – The stone is mentioned with regards to the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:18</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:11</a>) and the stones of Gan Eden (<a href="Yechezkel28-13" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 28:13</a>), and also in <a href="Yechezkel27-16" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 27:16</a>, in the context of the merchandise of Aram.</li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Linguistic analysis</b> – R. Saadia and <multilink><a href="RashiYeshayahu54-11" data-aht="source">Rashi</a><a href="RashiYeshayahu54-11" data-aht="source">Yeshayahu 54:11</a><a href="R. Shelomo Yitzchaki (Rashi)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki</a></multilink><fn>See also Shadal.</fn> relate נֹפֶךְ to the word "פוך", a stone mentioned alongside other precious gems in <a href="Yeshayahu54-11" data-aht="source">Yeshayahu 54:11</a> and <a href="DivreiHaYamimI29-2" data-aht="source">Divrei HaYamim I 29:2</a>.<fn><multilink><a href="IbnEzraShemotSecondCommentary28-9" data-aht="source">Ibn Ezra</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotFirstCommentary28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot First Commentary 28:17-20</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotSecondCommentary28-9" data-aht="source">Shemot Second Commentary 28:9</a><a href="R. Avraham ibn Ezra" data-aht="parshan">About R. Avraham ibn Ezra</a></multilink> argues against the association, pointing out that the the "נ" of "נפך" appears to be part of the root. See, though, R"Y Yankelewitz (ibid) who attempts to bring textual support for identifying the two stones.</fn> Both <a href="MelakhimII9-30" data-aht="source">Melakhim II 9:30</a> and <a href="Yirmeyahu4-30" data-aht="source">Yirmeyahu 4:30</a> imply that it was a source of eye make-up, assumed to be bluish<fn>See, though, R. Saadia as cited by <multilink><a href="IbnEzraShemotSecondCommentary28-9" data-aht="source">Ibn Ezra</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotSecondCommentary28-9" data-aht="source">Shemot Second Commentary 28:9</a><a href="R. Avraham ibn Ezra" data-aht="parshan">About R. Avraham ibn Ezra</a></multilink> who suggests that it was closer to black.</fn> in color, suggesting that "נֹפֶךְ" is a blue gem. The word "נֹפֶךְ" might also relate to the Egyptian <i>mfkt, </i>referring to a greenish-blue stone such as turquoise, or perhaps malachite.<fn>See T. Lambdin, "Egyptian Loan Words in the Old Testament", Journal of the American Oriental Society 73:3 (1953): 152.  Both turquoise and malachite could have been a source of eye-paint, matching the connection to "פוך".</fn> The former  matches <multilink><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">Bemidbar Rabbah's</a><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">2:7</a><a href="Bemidbar Rabbah" data-aht="parshan">About Bemidbar Rabbah</a></multilink> description of the stone as being "the color of the sky".</li> |
− | <li>Translations | + | <li><b>Translations</b> – <multilink><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Onkelos</a><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Onkelos" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Onkelos</a></multilink> translates "נֹפֶךְ" as "אִזְמַרַגְדִּין",‎<fn>See also <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)</a></multilink> who writes "איזמורד". </fn> generally understood to refer to a green gem<fn>See <multilink><a href="RBachyaShemot28-15" data-aht="source">R. Bachya</a><a href="RBachyaShemot28-15" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:15</a><a href="R. Bachya b. Asher" data-aht="parshan">About R. Bachya b. Asher</a></multilink> who also suggests that the stone was green.</fn> such as an emerald or malachite, while the Septuagint refers to it as <i>anthrax</i>, which, like the English word carbuncle, means coal, and refers to a stone the color of burning embers,<fn>See also <multilink><a href="ShemotRabbah38-8" data-aht="source">Shemot Rabbah</a><a href="ShemotRabbah38-8" data-aht="source">38:8</a><a href="Shemot Rabbah" data-aht="parshan">About Shemot Rabbah</a></multilink> who identifies the stone as "בְּרָדִינִין" and <a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Targum Neofiti</a> and  <a href="TargumYerushalmiFragmentaryShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary)</a> who write, "כדכדינה", both of which have been understood by some to refer to a red stone as well. [See Emil G. Hirsch, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), entry: <a href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6574-gems">Gems</a>.]  However, as <a href="Yeshayahu54-11" data-aht="source">Yeshayahu 54:11-12</a> mentions כדכד  together with פוך, it seems that they are two different stones.   <multilink><a href="JosephusAntiquitiesoftheJews3-7-5" data-aht="source">Josephus</a><a href="JosephusAntiquitiesoftheJews3-7-5" data-aht="source">Antiquities of the Jews 3:7:5</a><a href="JosephusWarsoftheJews5-5-7" data-aht="source">Wars of the Jews 5:5:7</a><a href="Josephus" data-aht="parshan">About Josephus</a></multilink> and the Vulgate also refer to נופך as carbuncle, as does <multilink><a href="ChizkuniShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Chizkuni</a><a href="ChizkuniShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach (Chizkuni)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach</a></multilink>.</fn> such as a ruby<fn>See above, though, that it is doubtful whether rubies were found in the time of Tanakh.</fn>or red garnet.<fn>R"Y Yankelewitz notes that this is exactly the opposite of the translations given for ברקת where it was the Aramaic translators who identified the stone as a red gem such as carbuncle, and the Greek translations which identified it as a green stone such as emerald.  This leads him to suggest that one of the two translators simply erred and accidentally switched the order of his identifications. He assumes that the error is in the Septuagint and brings several arguments to support his hypothesis. According to his analysis, then, it is agreed among both the Aramaic and Greek translations that ברקת refers to a bright red stone and that נופך refers to a green one.</fn></li> |
− | <li>Possible identifications – | + | <li><b>Possible identifications</b> – A blue-green stone such as turquoise, an emerald or other green stone such as a malachite, a red stone such as a ruby or red garnet.</li> |
</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | + | </category> | |
− | + | <category>סַפִּיר | |
<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – The סַפִּיר is mentioned in many verses<fn>See <a href="Yeshayahu54-11" data-aht="source">Yeshayahu 54:11</a>, <a href="Yechezkel1-26" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 1:26</a>, <a href="Yechezkel10-1" data-aht="source">10:1</a>, <a href="Iyyov28-6" data-aht="source">Iyyov 28:6</a>,<a href="Iyyov28-16" data-aht="source">16</a>, <a href="ShirHaShirim5-14" data-aht="source">Shir HaShirim 5:14</a> and <a href="Eikhah4-7" data-aht="source">Eikhah 4:7</a>.</fn> but the most helpful source in terms of identifying the stone is <a href="Shemot24-9-10" data-aht="source">Shemot 24:10</a>.  In describing the vision of Hashem seen by the elders, it reads, "וְתַחַת רַגְלָיו כְּמַעֲשֵׂה לִבְנַת הַסַּפִּיר וּכְעֶצֶם הַשָּׁמַיִם לָטֹהַר"‎,<fn>In Yechezkel's "vision of the chariot" he similarly describes Hashem's throne as "כְּמַרְאֵה אֶבֶן סַפִּיר" (Yechezkel 1:26, 10:1).</fn> suggesting that the סַפִּיר might be either white<fn>R. Saadia identifies the stone as "מהא", understood to be a white or clear crystal and Ibn Ezra explicitly states that R. Saadia thought the stone was white because of the phrase, "לבנת הספיר".  However, it is possible that the word "לִבְנַת" refers to a brick (from לבנה) and not to whiteness.</fn> or the color of a pure blue sky.</li> |
− | < | + | <li><b>Translations</b> – The various Aramaic and Greek translations (as well as many later sources) are fairly close to the Hebrew, rendering the stone as ספרינה or<i> sapphirus</i>‎.<fn><multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Targum Neofiti</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)</a></multilink> and <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)</a></multilink> identify the stone as ספרינה or ספירינון, while the Septuagint (and <multilink><a href="JosephusAntiquitiesoftheJews3-7-5" data-aht="source">Josephus</a><a href="JosephusAntiquitiesoftheJews3-7-5" data-aht="source">Antiquities of the Jews 3:7:5</a><a href="JosephusWarsoftheJews5-5-7" data-aht="source">Wars of the Jews 5:5:7</a><a href="Josephus" data-aht="parshan">About Josephus</a></multilink>) has<i> sapphirus</i>.  <multilink><a href="ShemotRabbah38-8" data-aht="source">Shemot Rabbah</a><a href="ShemotRabbah38-8" data-aht="source">38:8</a><a href="Shemot Rabbah" data-aht="parshan">About Shemot Rabbah</a></multilink> similarly writes, "סַנְפִּירִינוֹוּן", while <multilink><a href="ChizkuniShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Chizkun</a><a href="ChizkuniShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach (Chizkuni)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach</a></multilink>i has "שפיר". <multilink><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Onkelos</a><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Onkelos" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Onkelos</a></multilink> reads, "שַׁבְזֵיז", which is difficult to identify.</fn>  Many have identified the gem with the modern sapphire,<fn>See discussions in D.Ginzberg, "לזהות המינרלוגית של אבני-החושן," Da'at Mikra Shemot (Jerusalem, 1991): appendix, 70-71 and M. Malul, Olam HaTanakh (ibid, p.169).</fn> a sky-blue colored gem, but despite the similarity in name, it seems that a different stone is referred to, as the modern gem was not known in the Mediterranean region until Roman times.<fn>See. E. G. Hirsch, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), entry: Gems.</fn> A second, perhaps better identification emerges from the descriptions of both Theophrastus<fn>See <i></i><a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjm1p7_yIDlAhVwMewKHSGvCzoQFjAAegQIABAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fkb.osu.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1811%2F32541%2FTHEOPHRASTUS_CALEY.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26gt%3B&usg=AOvVaw1DdD5Qb6gZxfI_Q04VxjlS"><i>On Stone</i>s</a> 4:23 and 6:37.</fn> and Pliny<fn>See his <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D37%3Achapter%3D39">Natural History 37:39</a>.</fn> who describe<i> sapphirus</i>‎ as an opaque blue stone<fn>As the modern sapphire is translucent, they cannot be referring to it.</fn> with golden specks, matching the gem lapis lazuli.<fn>R. Yankelewitz (ibid, p.507) suggests that Iyyov 28:6's description, "מְקוֹם סַפִּיר אֲבָנֶיהָ וְעַפְרֹת זָהָב לוֹ", might allude to this aspect of the gem. The phrase "עַפְרֹת זָהָב לוֹ"  might be referring back to the gold speckled stone (and not the place being discussed, which would have required a feminine referent "לה").</fn></li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Possible identifications</b> – Likely lapis lazuli, though some have suggested sapphire.</li> |
</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | + | </category> | |
− | + | <category>יָהֲלֹם | |
<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:18</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:11</a>) and the stones of Gan Eden (<a href="Yechezkel28-13" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 28:13</a>).</li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Linguistic analysis</b> – "יָהֲלֹם" might relate to the root "הלם" which means to strike or hammer.  This would suggest that the stone was on the harder side and used for cutting other gems, or perhaps to start fires by striking pyrite. This might point to jasper or quartz which rank 7 on the Mohs scale of hardness and were commonly used to start fires in ancient times.  Alternatively, the word might be connected to the root "הלל", meaning to shine, which might point specifically to a clear variety of quartz. Others<fn>See the discussion in J. Harrell, J. Hoffmeier and K. Williams, "Hebrew Gemstones in the Old Testament: A Lexical, Geological, and Archaeological Analysis," Bulletin for Biblical Research 27:1 (2017): 21.</fn> have suggested that the word might be related to the gemstone known in Akkadian as <i>ḫulālu</i>, whose description might match that of a milky white gem such as moonstone.<fn>Bemidbar Rabbah's description of a white stone might match either of these last two possibilities.  As it identifies the colors of the tribes' flags based on the stones, when writing that Zevulun's flag was "white" it could be assuming that the associated stone was either white or clear (for it would be impossible to color a flag "clear").</fn></li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Translations</b> – Though the modern translation of "יָהֲלֹם" is diamond,<fn><multilink><a href="IbnEzraShemotFirstCommentary28-17-20" data-aht="source">Ibn Ezra's</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotFirstCommentary28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot First Commentary 28:17-20</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotSecondCommentary28-9" data-aht="source">Shemot Second Commentary 28:9</a><a href="R. Avraham ibn Ezra" data-aht="parshan">About R. Avraham ibn Ezra</a></multilink> description of the gem as one "which breaks all other stones" suggests that he, too, had a diamond in mind, and <multilink><a href="AbarbanelShemot28-6" data-aht="source">Abarbanel</a><a href="AbarbanelShemot28-6" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:6</a><a href="R. Yitzchak Abarbanel" data-aht="parshan">About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel</a></multilink> explicitly refers to it as such.</fn> this is an unlikely identification as the art of cutting diamonds was unknown in Biblical times and they were not found in the Mediterranean region until the Roman period.<fn>See J. Harrell, J. Hoffmeier and K. Williams, (ibid, p 20).</fn> <multilink><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Onkelos</a><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Onkelos" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Onkelos</a></multilink> translates "יָהֲלֹם" as "סַבְהֲלוֹם" , while <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Targum Neofiti </a><a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)</a></multilink>and <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiFragmentaryShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary)</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiFragmentaryShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary)</a></multilink> write "עין עגלה".  Neither of these names are easily identifiable.<fn>See the discussion below regarding the identity of אחלמה for two possibilities.</fn> The Septuagint, in contrast, identifies the gem as <i>iaspis</i>,<fn>This might match the translation of Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan), "כדכודין". A variant of this word, כדכוד, appears in <a href="Yeshayahu54-11" data-aht="source">Yeshayahu 54:12</a> where the Septuagint identifies it as <i>iaspis</i>, equivalent its translation of יהלום of this verse.</fn> which, from ancient descriptions, appears to refer to quartz or jasper,<fn>This would fit the linguistic analysis above.</fn> likely of a shade of green.<fn>See J. Harrrell (ibid, p.156) who points to descriptions by Theophrastus which imply that the stone was greenish and to Pliny who lists many varieties of <i>iaspis</i>, most of which are some shade of green (or perhaps blue).</fn></li> |
+ | <li><b>Possible identifications</b> – Clear or green quartz, jasper, or moonstone</li> | ||
</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | + | </category> | |
− | + | <category>לֶשֶׁם | |
<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:19</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:12</a>).</li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Linguistic analysis</b> – The Hebrew לשם might be related to the Egyptian <i>nšm(t), </i>identified by some as the bluish-green feldspar (amazonite)<i>.</i><fn>See J. Harrell, J. Hoffmeier and K. Williams, (ibid, p. 22-23).   They point out that a linguistic shift between the Egyptian <i>nun</i> and Hebrew<i> lamed</i> is attested to elsewhere and that descriptions of the stone in Egyptian texts point to feldspar.</fn></li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Translations</b> – <multilink><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Onkelos</a><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Onkelos" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Onkelos</a></multilink> and <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Yerushalmi (Yonatan)</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)</a></multilink> translate "לֶשֶׁם" as "קנכירי" / "קנכירינון", while the Septuagint reads <i>lyncurion</i> or <i>ligurios</i>.  These might be variations of the same word with the Aramaic inserting a ק in place of the ל.  The Greek word has been understood to refer either to amber (fossilized pine resin which is yellow-orange in color),<fn>This is based on descriptions by Theophrastus and Pliny. See Harrell (ibid, p. 157-158) and R. Yankelewitz (ibid, p. 510-512). As amber is a very soft stone (ranking only 2-3 on the Moh's scale of hardness), though, it is questioned how suitable is was to be used as gem on the breastplate.</fn> or to jacinth, a reddish-yellow zirkon.<fn>See the discussion in Kunz (ibid), Encyclopedia Mikrait 4 (Jeruslaem, 1962): 532-533, and D. Ginsberg (ibid, p.71).</fn> </li> |
+ | <li><b>Possible identifications</b> – Amber, jacinth, amazonite<fn>In the printed versions of Bemidbar Rabbah, the stone is compared to a sapphire, suggesting that it was blue in color, perhaps similar to amazonite or turquoise.  Yet manuscripts of the Midrash instead read "דומה לעספיר" which in Arabic means turmeric, pointing to a golden-yellow color, like amber. [See R. Yankelewitz (ibid, p.512).</fn></li> | ||
</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | + | </category> | |
− | + | <category>שְׁבוֹ | |
<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:19</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:12</a>).</li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Linguistic analysis</b> – The word "שְׁבוֹ" might be related to the Assyrian <i>šubû</i>, referring to agate, a striped stone. [Bemidbar Rabbah's description of the stone as being both black and white might refer to agate as well.]</li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Translations</b> – The Septuagint's translation of <i>achate</i> matches the identification above of agate.<fn>Shemot Rabbah's "אָבָאטִיס" might be a corrupted form of "אכאטיס", and also refer to agate.</fn> <multilink><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Onkelos</a><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Onkelos" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Onkelos</a></multilink> and <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Yerushalmi (Yonatan)</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)</a></multilink>, on the other hand, identify the stone as "‎טרקין" / "טרקיא".‎<fn>Interestingly one of the manuscripts of Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan) reads "ערקין" (rather than "טרקין"), a word which means striped and could easily refer to agate as well.</fn>  Some associate this with turquoise,<fn>See. E. G. Hirsch, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), entry: Gems. See also R. Bachya who identifies it as "טורקיז״א".</fn> while others suggest that it refers to the "Thracian stone" (a stone from טרקיא), assumed by some to be the black gem, jet,<fn>See also R. Saadia who translates it as "סבג" which means black.</fn> a fossilized wood that is a precursor to coal.<fn>See R. Kostov, "Notes and Interpretation on the 'Thracian stone' in Ancient Sources," Annual of the University of Mining and Geology, St. Ivan Rilsky 50:I (2007) who raises this among several possible identifications. See also Z. Amar, החן שבאבן: אבני החושן ואבנים טובות בעולם הקדום (מכון הר ברכה, תשע"ז).</fn></li> |
+ | <li><b>Possible identifications</b> – Agate, turquoise, jet</li> | ||
</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | + | </category> | |
− | + | <category>אַחְלָמָה | |
<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:19</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:12</a>).</li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Linguistic Analysis</b> –  Etymologically, the word might be related to "החלמה", strength or health.<fn>Cf. Ibn Ezra and others who suggest instead that it relates to the word "חלום" or dream, and posit that the gem had some attribute that induced dreams.</fn>  If the stone is identified as an amethyst (see below), this might relate to the belief that the gem had certain health benefits and could protect against drunkenness.<fn>R. Yankelewitz (ibid, p.514) also raises the possibility that the word might stem from the name of an area in Armenia known in Assyrian as"אחלמא".  According to Pliny, Armenia is where amethysts were found, and so perhaps the stone was named after its place of origin.</fn>  Alternatively, "אַחְלָמָה" relates to the Egyptian <i>ḫnm(t)</i>, understood to be a stone with a reddish-orange hue, such as red jasper.<fn>See Harrell, Hoffmeier, and Williams (ibid, p.25).</fn></li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Translations</b> – <multilink><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Onkelos</a><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Onkelos" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Onkelos</a></multilink> and <a href="TargumYerushalmiYonatanShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)</a> translate "אַחְלָמָה" as "עין עגלא", whose identity is debated, but Z. Amar<fn>See his book, החן שבאבן: אבני החושן ואבנים טובות בעולם הקדום (מכון הר ברכה, תשע"ז).</fn> suggests that it might refer to sardonyx, a stone comprising bands of color, sometimes with a dark center and paler surroundings, giving it the appearance of an eye.<fn>In contrast, R. Yankelewitz (ibid, p. 513) suggests that this might refer to the amethyst (matching the Greek translation) which Pliny refers to as "the eye of aphrodite," a goddess who was also worshiped in the form of a calf. [Hence, "the eye of aphrodite" might be equivalent to the "eye of the calf / עין עגלא".]</fn> The Septuagint, in contrast, defines it as <i>amethystos</i>, or an amethyst. This is in line with <multilink><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">Bemidbar Rabbah's</a><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">2:7</a><a href="Bemidbar Rabbah" data-aht="parshan">About Bemidbar Rabbah</a></multilink> description of a stone "similar to clear wine whose redness is not too strong".</li> |
+ | <li><b>Possible identifications</b> – Sardonyx, amethyst, red jasper</li> | ||
</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | + | </category> | |
− | + | <category>תַּרְשִׁישׁ | |
<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – The stone is mentioned both in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:20</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:13</a>) and the stones of Gan Eden (<a href="Yechezkel28-13" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 28:13</a>), but it is its other appearances in Tanakh which are most helpful for identification purposes. <a href="ShirHaShirim5-14" data-aht="source">Shir HaShirim 5:14</a> and <a href="Daniel10-6" data-aht="source">Daniel 10:6</a> both associate the word with glowing materials such as gold, fire, or lightning,<fn>Cf. <a href="Yechezkel1-16" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 1:16</a> and <a href="Yechezkel10-9" data-aht="source">10:9</a>, where the chariot's wheels are described as "sparkling" like Tarshish.</fn> suggesting that the stone was a yellow or gold gem, perhaps topaz or amber.<fn>Bemidbar Rabbah declares that the gem was "דּוֹמֶה לְאֶבֶן יְקָרָה שֶׁמִּתְקַשְּׁטוֹת בּוֹ הַנָּשִׁים".  This is difficult to identify, but it is interesting to note that Pliny (<a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D37%3Achapter%3D11#note2">Natural History 37:11</a>) speaks of amber as being a gem which "is only in request among women".</fn></li> |
− | <li> | + | </ul><ul> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Linguistic Analysis</b> – The stone's name might relate to the place Tarshish, perhaps where the stone originated, or to the Akkadian <i>rašāšu</i>, which means to glow (also, perhaps, pointing to a golden colored stone).</li> |
+ | <li><b>Translations</b> – The Aramaic translations all refer to the stone as "כרום ימא", suggesting a stone the color of the sea,<fn>"כרום" is likely related to the Greek word, "chrom," meaning color.</fn> perhaps aquamarine or lapis lazuli, a blue stone with specks of gold. [The latter possibility has the advantage of relating to the golden associations in the various verses.] The Septuagint, in contrast, renders the word as "<i>chrysolithos</i>," referring to a yellow-gold gem, perhaps topaz or citrine, a type of yellow quartz.<fn>Cf. R. Bachya who writes of the gem: "גוון שלה דומה לגוון השמן".</fn></li> | ||
+ | <li><b>Possible identifications</b> – A golden-yellow gem such as topaz, amber, or citrine, or a blue gem such as aquamarine or lapis-lazuli.</li> | ||
</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | + | </category> | |
− | + | <category>שֹׁהַם | |
<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – Outside the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:20</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:13</a>) and the stones of Gan Eden (<a href="Yechezkel28-13" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 28:13</a>), the gem is also mentioned  in connection to the Efod (Shemot 28:9), where it is named as the stones upon which were inscribed the names of all the tribes.<fn>See also Shemot 25:7, 35:9, 27 and Divrei HaYamim I 29:2 which all speak of gathering the stone among materials to be used for the Mishkan / Mikdash.</fn>  <a href="Bereshit2-11-12" data-aht="source">Bereshit 2:12</a> further shares that it was found in אֶרֶץ הַחֲוִילָה together with the "בְּדֹלַח", and <a href="Iyyov28-16" data-aht="source">Iyyov 28:16</a> writes that wisdom cannot be valued with either it or the סַפִּיר.</li> |
− | < | + | <li><b>Linguistic analysis</b> – Etymologically, the word "שֹׁהַם" might be related to the Akkadian <i>sāmtu(m)</i>, meaning reddish, suggesting that the stone is red in color, perhaps a carnelian or red sardonyx.</li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Translations</b> - Both <multilink><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Onkelos</a><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Onkelos" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Onkelos</a></multilink> and the Septuagint render "שֹׁהַם" as "בורלא" or <i>beryllios</i>,<fn>See, though, the Septuagint on Shemot 25:7 and 35:9, where אבני השהם are translated as <i>sardius</i> (see discussion above that this might refer to carnelian), and  the Septuagint on <a href="Iyyov28-16" data-aht="source">Iyyov 28:16</a> and <a href="DivreiHaYamimI29-2" data-aht="source">Divrei HaYamim I 29:2</a> which provides a third possibility, rendering שהם there as onyx.</fn> presumably referring to beryl, a family of stones which includes emeralds<fn>In fact, on Bereshit 2:11, the Septuagint renders "shoham" as a "leek-green stone" and in Shemot 28:9 as "smaragdos" (an emerald or other green stone).</fn> and aquamarine.<fn>Pliny (Natual History 37:20: 76–79) writes, "many people consider the nature of berullus to be similar to, if not identical with, that of [smaragdus]”.  He further says that they have a “hexagonal shape” and that high quality berullus has color like the “pure green of the sea".</fn> However, since beryl is a very hard rock which would be difficult to engrave, some question this identification.<fn>See M. Malul (ibid, p.154).</fn> <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiFragmentaryShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Yerushalmi</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiFragmentaryShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary)</a></multilink>, in contrast, reads "בדולחא" which might refer to rock crystal.<fn>See also Abarbanel.</fn> However, Bereshit 2:12's mention of both "בְּדֹלַח" and "שֹׁהַם" in the same verse would argue against identifying the two. <a href="JosephusAntiquitiesoftheJews3-7-5" data-aht="source">Josephus</a> adds two more possibilities, identifying the שהם stones on the Efod as sardonyx<fn>This matches the Septuagint's identification of the <i>shoham</i> stones in <a href="DivreiHaYamimI29-2" data-aht="source">Divrei HaYamim I 29:2</a>.</fn> and those in the breastplate as onyx. [See also <multilink><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">Bemidbar Rabbah</a><a href="BemidbarRabbah2-7" data-aht="source">2:7</a><a href="Bemidbar Rabbah" data-aht="parshan">About Bemidbar Rabbah</a></multilink> which describes the stone as black in color, matching a black onyx].</li> |
+ | <li><b>Possible identifications</b> – A red stone such as carnelian or sardonyx, a beryl such as emeralds or aquamarine, rock crystal, or onyx.</li> | ||
</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | + | </category> | |
− | + | <category>יָשְׁפֵה | |
<ul> | <ul> | ||
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Biblical verses</b> – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (<a href="Shemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17</a> and <a href="Shemot39-8-14" data-aht="source">Shemot 39:10</a>) and the stones of Gan Eden (<a href="Yechezkel28-13" data-aht="source">Yechezkel 28:13</a>).</li> |
− | < | + | <li><b>Linguistic analysis</b> – The word is etymologically related to the Akkadian <i>yašpû</i>, Arabic "יַשְׁבֻּ", and Greek <i>iaspis</i> all apparently referring to jasper, an opaque gem with patterns of color running through it.</li> |
− | <li> | + | <li><b>Translations</b> – The Septuagint identifies the stone as <i>onychion</i>, an onyx, described by Theophrastus as being black and white and by Pliny as having many shades of colors. <multilink><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Onkelos</a><a href="TargumOnkelosShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Onkelos" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Onkelos</a></multilink><fn>Cf. Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan) which writes "מרגניית אפנטורין".</fn> translates it as "פַנְתֵּירִי", a stone which is difficult to identify.  It might be related to the Greek <i>pontica</i>,<fn>See R. Yankelewitz (ibid, p.519).</fn> a type of agate, or to the Greek <i>panchrus<fn>See Z. Amar (ibid).</fn></i> which means "of all colors",<fn>See Pliny's<a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D37%3Achapter%3D66"> Natural History 37:66</a>.</fn> referring to any variegated gem such as jasper, onyx or opal.<fn>Cf. Bemidbar Rabbah who describes it as being  "similar to all the colors".</fn> Alternatively the Aramaic refers to panther, in which case it could refer to a stone which somehow resembles the animal, perhaps to a pale yellow variety of jasper with bands of orange or brown.<fn><multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Targum Neofiti</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiNeofitiShemot28-17-20_2" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti)</a></multilink>  and <multilink><a href="TargumYerushalmiFragmentaryShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Targum Yerushalmi</a><a href="TargumYerushalmiFragmentaryShemot28-17-20" data-aht="source">Shemot 28:17-20</a><a href="Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary)" data-aht="parshan">About Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary)</a></multilink> offer a different possible identification, referring to the stone as "מרגליתה, while Shemot Rabbah writes, "מַרְגָלִיטוֹס".  This might relate to the Greek word, <i>margaritos</i>, understood to be a pearl, though Chazal use the word more broadly to refer to any precious gem.</fn>  </li> |
+ | <li><b>Identifications</b> – Some type of banded or multicolored stone such as jasper, onyx,  or opal.</li> | ||
</ul> | </ul> | ||
− | |||
</category> | </category> | ||
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Latest revision as of 04:06, 26 March 2024
Stones of the Choshen
Overview
The twelve stones of the choshen are named in Shemot 28:17-201. However, since the verses provide no other descriptive information, the identity of almost every stone is heavily debated. In trying to determine which gems are referred to, scholars look for descriptions in other verses in which the stones are mentioned, explore cognate languages for linguistic clues as to the stones' identity, and turn to identifications made by both the Aramaic and Greek translations of Torah. The various translations, however, are not in total agreement, and the identity of many of the Aramaic and Greek names are disputed.2 Bemidbar Rabbah provides further clues, as it lists the color of many of the stones, but as this is a relatively late source, it is less reliable. Finally, archaeological and geological investigations regarding the availability and use of gems in Egypt and Sinai during the period of the Exodus help to narrow the possibilities. Given the many unknowns, it is not surprising that multiple possible identifications have been raised for almost every stone. For images of the various gems, see Olam HaMIkra Shemot 28.
אֹדֶם
- Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13).
- Linguistic analysis – The word "אֹדֶם" relates to the color "אדום", meaning red.
- Translations – All the Aramaic translations render "אֹדֶם" fairly literally, as "סמקן" or "סמוקתא", meaning reddish. The Septuagint translates it as sardius,3 generally identified as the orange-red gemstone, carnelian, which, based on the archaeological evidence, was very popular in ancient times.4 Others suggest that sardius might instead refer to red jasper.5
- Possible Identifications – A reddish stone, likely carnelian, but perhaps red jasper.6
פִּטְדָה
- Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), and also in Iyyov 28:19 where it is referred to as "פִּטְדַת כּוּשׁ", suggesting that it originated in or was imported from Egypt (Ethiopia).
- Linguistic analysis – The word פִּטְדָה might be a loan word from Sanskrit where pita means yellow, or it could be related to the Assyrian hipindu, which means "flashing" stone.7
- Translations – The Aramaic Targumim render "פִּטְדָה" as "ירקן" or "ירקתא", pointing to a green gem,8 while the Septuagint identifies it as topazius.9 Based on descriptions by Pliny the Elder,10 many scholars assume that this refers to olivine (also known as peridot), a stone with a yellow-green color.11 The ancient source of peridot was the Island of Zabargad (modern St. John's Island) in the Red Sea, under the control of Egypt,12 matching Iyyov's reference to "פִּטְדַת כּוּשׁ". Others, however, raise the possibility that the Greek topazius refers to the modern gem known as topaz,13 and point to yellow variety of the stone.
- Possible Identifications – A greenish-yellow stone, likely olivine (peridot), or perhaps yellow topaz.
בָרֶקֶת
- Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13).
- Linguistic analysis – The word "בָרֶקֶת" might relate to "ברק", lightning, referring to something that shines. In Assyrian the word baraqu similarly means to flash, while burruqu means flushed or red-faced and red-haired.14 Taken together, these might suggest a brilliant red stone.
- Translations – Aramaic translations render "בָרֶקֶת" fairly literally,15 echoing that the rock sparkled or was particularly shiny. This fits a carbuncle such as the red garnet which has an unusually high refractive index, making it exceptionally bright.16 The Septuagint,17 in contrast, translates the word as smaragdos, often understood to be an emerald or other green stone. As the hardness of emeralds makes them difficult to engrave, a better identification might be malachite, an opaque, green banded gem, or perhaps turquoise, a greenish-blue stone.18
- Possible identifications – Carbuncle (perhaps a red garnet) or a green stone such as emerald or malachite.19
נֹפֶךְ
- Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned with regards to the Choshen (Shemot 28:18 and Shemot 39:11) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), and also in Yechezkel 27:16, in the context of the merchandise of Aram.
- Linguistic analysis – R. Saadia and Rashi20 relate נֹפֶךְ to the word "פוך", a stone mentioned alongside other precious gems in Yeshayahu 54:11 and Divrei HaYamim I 29:2.21 Both Melakhim II 9:30 and Yirmeyahu 4:30 imply that it was a source of eye make-up, assumed to be bluish22 in color, suggesting that "נֹפֶךְ" is a blue gem. The word "נֹפֶךְ" might also relate to the Egyptian mfkt, referring to a greenish-blue stone such as turquoise, or perhaps malachite.23 The former matches Bemidbar Rabbah's description of the stone as being "the color of the sky".
- Translations – Targum Onkelos translates "נֹפֶךְ" as "אִזְמַרַגְדִּין",24 generally understood to refer to a green gem25 such as an emerald or malachite, while the Septuagint refers to it as anthrax, which, like the English word carbuncle, means coal, and refers to a stone the color of burning embers,26 such as a ruby27or red garnet.28
- Possible identifications – A blue-green stone such as turquoise, an emerald or other green stone such as a malachite, a red stone such as a ruby or red garnet.
סַפִּיר
- Biblical verses – The סַפִּיר is mentioned in many verses29 but the most helpful source in terms of identifying the stone is Shemot 24:10. In describing the vision of Hashem seen by the elders, it reads, "וְתַחַת רַגְלָיו כְּמַעֲשֵׂה לִבְנַת הַסַּפִּיר וּכְעֶצֶם הַשָּׁמַיִם לָטֹהַר",30 suggesting that the סַפִּיר might be either white31 or the color of a pure blue sky.
- Translations – The various Aramaic and Greek translations (as well as many later sources) are fairly close to the Hebrew, rendering the stone as ספרינה or sapphirus.32 Many have identified the gem with the modern sapphire,33 a sky-blue colored gem, but despite the similarity in name, it seems that a different stone is referred to, as the modern gem was not known in the Mediterranean region until Roman times.34 A second, perhaps better identification emerges from the descriptions of both Theophrastus35 and Pliny36 who describe sapphirus as an opaque blue stone37 with golden specks, matching the gem lapis lazuli.38
- Possible identifications – Likely lapis lazuli, though some have suggested sapphire.
יָהֲלֹם
- Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:18 and Shemot 39:11) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13).
- Linguistic analysis – "יָהֲלֹם" might relate to the root "הלם" which means to strike or hammer. This would suggest that the stone was on the harder side and used for cutting other gems, or perhaps to start fires by striking pyrite. This might point to jasper or quartz which rank 7 on the Mohs scale of hardness and were commonly used to start fires in ancient times. Alternatively, the word might be connected to the root "הלל", meaning to shine, which might point specifically to a clear variety of quartz. Others39 have suggested that the word might be related to the gemstone known in Akkadian as ḫulālu, whose description might match that of a milky white gem such as moonstone.40
- Translations – Though the modern translation of "יָהֲלֹם" is diamond,41 this is an unlikely identification as the art of cutting diamonds was unknown in Biblical times and they were not found in the Mediterranean region until the Roman period.42 Onkelos translates "יָהֲלֹם" as "סַבְהֲלוֹם" , while Targum Neofiti and Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary) write "עין עגלה". Neither of these names are easily identifiable.43 The Septuagint, in contrast, identifies the gem as iaspis,44 which, from ancient descriptions, appears to refer to quartz or jasper,45 likely of a shade of green.46
- Possible identifications – Clear or green quartz, jasper, or moonstone
לֶשֶׁם
- Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:19 and Shemot 39:12).
- Linguistic analysis – The Hebrew לשם might be related to the Egyptian nšm(t), identified by some as the bluish-green feldspar (amazonite).47
- Translations – Targum Onkelos and Yerushalmi (Yonatan) translate "לֶשֶׁם" as "קנכירי" / "קנכירינון", while the Septuagint reads lyncurion or ligurios. These might be variations of the same word with the Aramaic inserting a ק in place of the ל. The Greek word has been understood to refer either to amber (fossilized pine resin which is yellow-orange in color),48 or to jacinth, a reddish-yellow zirkon.49
- Possible identifications – Amber, jacinth, amazonite50
שְׁבוֹ
- Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:19 and Shemot 39:12).
- Linguistic analysis – The word "שְׁבוֹ" might be related to the Assyrian šubû, referring to agate, a striped stone. [Bemidbar Rabbah's description of the stone as being both black and white might refer to agate as well.]
- Translations – The Septuagint's translation of achate matches the identification above of agate.51 Targum Onkelos and Yerushalmi (Yonatan), on the other hand, identify the stone as "טרקין" / "טרקיא".52 Some associate this with turquoise,53 while others suggest that it refers to the "Thracian stone" (a stone from טרקיא), assumed by some to be the black gem, jet,54 a fossilized wood that is a precursor to coal.55
- Possible identifications – Agate, turquoise, jet
אַחְלָמָה
- Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:19 and Shemot 39:12).
- Linguistic Analysis – Etymologically, the word might be related to "החלמה", strength or health.56 If the stone is identified as an amethyst (see below), this might relate to the belief that the gem had certain health benefits and could protect against drunkenness.57 Alternatively, "אַחְלָמָה" relates to the Egyptian ḫnm(t), understood to be a stone with a reddish-orange hue, such as red jasper.58
- Translations – Targum Onkelos and Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan) translate "אַחְלָמָה" as "עין עגלא", whose identity is debated, but Z. Amar59 suggests that it might refer to sardonyx, a stone comprising bands of color, sometimes with a dark center and paler surroundings, giving it the appearance of an eye.60 The Septuagint, in contrast, defines it as amethystos, or an amethyst. This is in line with Bemidbar Rabbah's description of a stone "similar to clear wine whose redness is not too strong".
- Possible identifications – Sardonyx, amethyst, red jasper
תַּרְשִׁישׁ
- Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned both in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:20 and Shemot 39:13) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), but it is its other appearances in Tanakh which are most helpful for identification purposes. Shir HaShirim 5:14 and Daniel 10:6 both associate the word with glowing materials such as gold, fire, or lightning,61 suggesting that the stone was a yellow or gold gem, perhaps topaz or amber.62
- Linguistic Analysis – The stone's name might relate to the place Tarshish, perhaps where the stone originated, or to the Akkadian rašāšu, which means to glow (also, perhaps, pointing to a golden colored stone).
- Translations – The Aramaic translations all refer to the stone as "כרום ימא", suggesting a stone the color of the sea,63 perhaps aquamarine or lapis lazuli, a blue stone with specks of gold. [The latter possibility has the advantage of relating to the golden associations in the various verses.] The Septuagint, in contrast, renders the word as "chrysolithos," referring to a yellow-gold gem, perhaps topaz or citrine, a type of yellow quartz.64
- Possible identifications – A golden-yellow gem such as topaz, amber, or citrine, or a blue gem such as aquamarine or lapis-lazuli.
שֹׁהַם
- Biblical verses – Outside the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:20 and Shemot 39:13) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), the gem is also mentioned in connection to the Efod (Shemot 28:9), where it is named as the stones upon which were inscribed the names of all the tribes.65 Bereshit 2:12 further shares that it was found in אֶרֶץ הַחֲוִילָה together with the "בְּדֹלַח", and Iyyov 28:16 writes that wisdom cannot be valued with either it or the סַפִּיר.
- Linguistic analysis – Etymologically, the word "שֹׁהַם" might be related to the Akkadian sāmtu(m), meaning reddish, suggesting that the stone is red in color, perhaps a carnelian or red sardonyx.
- Translations - Both Targum Onkelos and the Septuagint render "שֹׁהַם" as "בורלא" or beryllios,66 presumably referring to beryl, a family of stones which includes emeralds67 and aquamarine.68 However, since beryl is a very hard rock which would be difficult to engrave, some question this identification.69 Targum Yerushalmi, in contrast, reads "בדולחא" which might refer to rock crystal.70 However, Bereshit 2:12's mention of both "בְּדֹלַח" and "שֹׁהַם" in the same verse would argue against identifying the two. Josephus adds two more possibilities, identifying the שהם stones on the Efod as sardonyx71 and those in the breastplate as onyx. [See also Bemidbar Rabbah which describes the stone as black in color, matching a black onyx].
- Possible identifications – A red stone such as carnelian or sardonyx, a beryl such as emeralds or aquamarine, rock crystal, or onyx.
יָשְׁפֵה
- Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13).
- Linguistic analysis – The word is etymologically related to the Akkadian yašpû, Arabic "יַשְׁבֻּ", and Greek iaspis all apparently referring to jasper, an opaque gem with patterns of color running through it.
- Translations – The Septuagint identifies the stone as onychion, an onyx, described by Theophrastus as being black and white and by Pliny as having many shades of colors. Targum Onkelos72 translates it as "פַנְתֵּירִי", a stone which is difficult to identify. It might be related to the Greek pontica,73 a type of agate, or to the Greek panchrus74 which means "of all colors",75 referring to any variegated gem such as jasper, onyx or opal.76 Alternatively the Aramaic refers to panther, in which case it could refer to a stone which somehow resembles the animal, perhaps to a pale yellow variety of jasper with bands of orange or brown.77
- Identifications – Some type of banded or multicolored stone such as jasper, onyx, or opal.