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Stones of the Choshen

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Overview

The twelve stones of the choshen are named in Shemot 28:17-20. However, since the verses provide no other descriptive information, the identity of almost every stone is heavily debated. In trying to determine which gems are referred to, scholars look for descriptions in other verses in which the stones are mentioned, explore cognate languages for linguistic clues as to the stones' identity, and turn to identifications made by both the Aramaic and Greek translations of Torah. The various translations, however, are not in total agreement, and the identity of many of the Aramaic and Greek names are disputed. Bemidbar Rabbah provides further clues, as it lists the color of many of the stones, but as this is a relatively late source, it might be less reliable. Given the many unknowns, it is not surprising that multiple possible identifications have been raised for almost every stone.

Possible Identifications

For pictures, see Olam HaMikra Shemot 28

אֹדֶם

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13).
• Etymology – The word "אֹדֶם" relates to the color "אדום", meaning red.
• Translations – All the Aramaic translations render "אֹדֶם" fairly literally, as "סמקן" or "סמוקתא", meaning reddish. The Septuagint translates it as sardius,¹ generally identified as the orange-red gemstone, carnelian.  Based on the archaeological evidence, this stone was very popular in ancient times.
• Possible Identifications – A reddish stone, likely carnelian, but perhaps red jasper.²

פִּטְדָה

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden in Yechezkel 28:13, and also in Iyyov 28:19 where it is referred to as "פִּטְדַת כּוּשׁ", suggesting that it originated in or was imported from Egypt (Ethiopia).
• Etymology – The word פִּטְדָה might be a loan word from Sanskrit where pita means yellow, or related to the Assyrian hipindu, which means "flashing" stone.³
• Translations – The Aramaic Targumim render "פִּטְדָה" as "ירקן" or "ירקתא", pointing to a green gem,⁴ while the Septuagint identifies it as topazius.⁵ Based on descriptions by Pliny the Elder,⁶ many scholars assume that this refers to olivine (also known as peridot), a stone with a yellow-green color.⁷ The ancient source of peridot was the Island of Zabargad (modern St. John's Island) in the Red Sea, under the control of Egypt, matching Iyyov's reference to "פִּטְדַת כּוּשׁ". Others, however, raise the possibility that the Greek topazius refers to the modern gem known as topaz, and point to yellow variety of the stone.⁸
• Possible Identifications – A greenish-yellow stone, likely olivine (peridot), or perhaps yellow topaz.

בָרֶקֶת

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden in Yechezkel 28:13.
• Etymology – The word "בָרֶקֶת" might relate to "ברק", lightning, referring to a something that shines. In Assyrian, the word burruqu means red.⁹
• Translations – Aramaic translations render "בָרֶקֶת" fairly literally,¹⁰ echoing that the rock sparkled or was particularly shiny. This fits a carbuncle such as the red garnet which has an unusually high refractive index, making it exceptionally bright.¹¹  The Septuagint,¹² in contrast, translates the word as smaragdos, often understood to be an emerald or other green stone. As the hardness of emeralds makes them difficult to engrave, some have suggested that maybe the word refers to malachite,¹³ an opaque, green banded gem.¹⁴
• Additional data – Bemidbar Rabbah2:7About Bemidbar Rabbah describes the gem as having black, white, and red bands, suggesting that it is some sort of agate or onyx.
• Possible identifications – Carbuncle (perhaps a red garnet), a green stone such as emerald or malakhite, or a banded stone such as agate or onyx.

נֹפֶךְ

• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned with regards to the Choshen (Shemot 28:17 and Shemot 39:10) and the stones of Gan Eden in Yechezkel 28:13, and also in Yechezkel 27:16, in the context of the merchandise of Aram.
• Etymology – 
• Translations - Targum OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos translates "נֹפֶךְ" as "אִזְמַרַגְדִּין", generally understood to refer to an emerald (or a similar green gem), while Targum YerushalmiShemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Fragmentary) and NeofitiShemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti) write, "כדכדינה", understood by some to refer to a red stone, perhaps a ruby¹⁵ or garnet. This would match the Septuagint's translation, anthrax, which, like the English word carbuncle, means coal,  and refers to a stone the color of burning embers.
• Possible identifications – Emerald (or another green stone), ruby or red garnet, turquoise.

סַפִּיר

• Possible identifications – Sapphire, lapis lazuli
• Biblical verses – Besides those verses relating to the Choshen or the stones of Eden, many other verses mention the סַפִּיר as well, including: Yeshayahu 54:11, Yechezkel 1:26, 10:1, Iyyov 28:6,16, Shir HaShirim 5:14 and Eikhah 4:7.  Most helpful for identification purposes, however, is Shemot 24, which describes the vision of Hashem seen by the elders: "וְתַחַת רַגְלָיו כְּמַעֲשֵׂה לִבְנַת הַסַּפִּיר וּכְעֶצֶם הַשָּׁמַיִם לָטֹהַר", suggesting that the סַפִּיר might be either white or the color of a pure blue sky.¹⁶ 
• Additional data – 

יָהֲלֹם

• Possible identifications – Green quartz or jasper, clear crystal quartz, moonstone
• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28 and 39) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28).
• Additional data – 

לֶשֶׁם

• Possible identifications – Amber, jacinth, turquoise
• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen.
• Additional data –

שְׁבוֹ

• Possible identifications – Agate, turquoise, jet
• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen.
• Additional data – 

אַחְלָמָה

• Possible identifications – Sardonyx, amethyst, red jasper
• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen.
• Additional data – 

תַּרְשִׁישׁ

• Possible identifications – Yellow-gold topaz, amber, aquamarine,
• Biblical verses – 
• Additional data – 

שֹׁהַם

• Possible identifications – Beryl (emerald or aquamarine), clear crystal quartz, sardonyx, onyx, carnelian
• Biblical verses – The gem is mentioned with regards to the Choshen (Shemot 28:20, 39:13), the stones of Eden (Yechezkel 28) and the Efod, where it is named as the stones upon which were inscribed the names of all the tribes  (Shemot 28:9).¹⁷ Bereshit 2:12 shares that אֶרֶץ הַחֲוִילָה contained both "שֹׁהַם" and "בְּדֹלַח" and Iyyov 28 writes that wisdom cannot be valued with either it or the סַפִּיר.
• Additional data – 

יָשְׁפֵה

• Possible identifications – Jasper, pearl, opal
• Biblical verses – The stone is mentioned only in the context of the Choshen (Shemot 28 and 39) and the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28).
• Additional data – 

¹ This is also Josephus' translation in his Wars of the Jews, but in his Antiquities of the Jews, he identifies the stone as sardonyx.

² See, for example, G. F. Kunz, The Curious Lore of Precious Stones, (New York, 1913), who suggests that in Ancient Egypt this was the more common stone and J. Harrell, "Old Testament Gemstones : A Philological , Geological , and Archaeological Assessment of the Septuagint", Bulletin for Biblical Research 21.2 (2011):141-172 who points to descriptions of sardion in Theophrastus' On Stones and in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder which might match jasper. 
R. Bachya and Abarbanel understand אודם to be a ruby, also red in color, but based on the archaeological evidence, it is doubtful whether rubies were known in the time of Tanakh.  [See Kunz (ibid) and  R"Y Yankelovitz, "זיהוי אבני החושן על פי תרגום השבעים והתרגומים הארמיים", in חצי גבורים-פליטת סופרים, vol. 10 (2017): 478-541.]

³ See S.V. Meschel, "The Gems in the High Priest's Breastplate: A Pragmatic Review", Jewish Bible Quarterly 46:4 (2018).

⁴ See also Bemidbar Rabbah2:7About Bemidbar Rabbah, R. BachyaShemot 28:15About R. Bachya b. Asher and AbarbanelShemot 28:6About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel (when reviewing the opinions of others) who all also claim that the stone was green. See also R Saadia Gaon who identifies the gem as "זמרד", an Arabic word which generally refers to emeralds, but might also refer other green stones.

⁵ See also Shemot Rabbah38:8About Shemot Rabbah which writes, "שמפוזין" which might refer to topazius as well (with the "ש" replacing the "ט"). R"Y Yankelovitz (cited above) raises the possibility that the words טופז(יון) and פטדה might be related, with the "פ" and "ט" switching places and the "ז" replacing the "ד" (a common exchange).

⁶ See his Natural History 37:32:109, where he describes it as resembling the "colouring principle of the leek".

⁷ As the stone is translucent, this choice might also fit the description emerging from the Assyrian "hipindu", as a  "flashing" or shimmering stone.

⁸ See discussion in G. F. Kunz cited above.

⁹ See

¹⁰ Targum OnkelosShemot 28:17-20About Targum Onkelos writes, "בָרְקָן", Targum NeofitiShemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Neofiti) has "ברקתה", and Targum Yerushlami (Yonatan)Shemot 28:17-20About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan) has "ברקתא".

¹¹ See R. BachyaShemot 28:15About R. Bachya b. Asher and AbarbanelShemot 28:6About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel who both agree with this identification. R. Bachya even suggests that this was the stone that Noach put in the ark to provide light due to its extreme brilliance.

¹² See also Josephus and the Vulgate.

¹³ Malakhite, though, is not known for its brightness, and thus, might not be the best fit for the Hebrew "ברקת".

¹⁴ J. Harrell, (ibid, p.161), pointing to descriptions of smaragdos in the Greek botanist Theophrastus' work, On Stones, also raises the possibility that it might refers to turquoise, a green-blue stone.

¹⁵ See the above note, though, that it is questionable whether rubies were found in the time of Tanakh.

¹⁶ In Yechezkel's "vision of the chariot" he similarly describes Hashem's throne as "כְּמַרְאֵה אֶבֶן סַפִּיר" (Yechezkel 1:26, 10:1).

¹⁷ See also Shemot 25:7, 35:9, 27 amd Divrei HaYamim I 29:2 which all speak of gathering the stone among materials to be used for the Mishkan / Mikdash.