Difference between revisions of "Reward and Punishment/2"
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<li><b>Individual</b> – In Torah, individuals including the spies, Nadav and Avihu, Datan and Aviram, or Miryam are all miraculously punished for their crimes almost instantaneously.<fn>The spies are killed via plague soon after delivering their report, Datan and Aviram are swallowed by the earth right after rebelling, and Miryam is struck with <i>tzaraat</i> right after slandering Moshe.</fn>  In later books,<fn>There are exceptions in both directions.  Even in later books sometimes an individual will be miraculously punished immediately after sin, such as Uzziyahu who is struck with <i>tzara'at</i>.  And in earlier books there is also evidence of more natural punishments, such as Yehuda's sons who die young for their evil ways.</fn> punishment is still given in this world, but it tends to be more natural and a bit less immediate.<fn>See, for instance, Shaul who loses his kingship for his failing to abide by Hashem's word to obliterate Amalek, David who is plagued with family turmoil for his sin with Batsheva, or Achav whose descendants are wiped out and who himself is disrespected in death (with dogs lapping up his blood) for his idolatrous ways.</fn> In such cases, prophetic rebukes often precede or follow the retribution, ensuring that the sinner sees the causal relationship and attributes calamities to sin.</li> | <li><b>Individual</b> – In Torah, individuals including the spies, Nadav and Avihu, Datan and Aviram, or Miryam are all miraculously punished for their crimes almost instantaneously.<fn>The spies are killed via plague soon after delivering their report, Datan and Aviram are swallowed by the earth right after rebelling, and Miryam is struck with <i>tzaraat</i> right after slandering Moshe.</fn>  In later books,<fn>There are exceptions in both directions.  Even in later books sometimes an individual will be miraculously punished immediately after sin, such as Uzziyahu who is struck with <i>tzara'at</i>.  And in earlier books there is also evidence of more natural punishments, such as Yehuda's sons who die young for their evil ways.</fn> punishment is still given in this world, but it tends to be more natural and a bit less immediate.<fn>See, for instance, Shaul who loses his kingship for his failing to abide by Hashem's word to obliterate Amalek, David who is plagued with family turmoil for his sin with Batsheva, or Achav whose descendants are wiped out and who himself is disrespected in death (with dogs lapping up his blood) for his idolatrous ways.</fn> In such cases, prophetic rebukes often precede or follow the retribution, ensuring that the sinner sees the causal relationship and attributes calamities to sin.</li> | ||
| − | <li><b>Collective</b> – This worldly retribution is also evident on the collective level. In Torah, immediate plague, fire and the like often strikes the nation immediately after rebelling.<fn>For example, the nation is plagued right after their sin at Ba'al Peor, fire immediately rages on those who complained in Tavera, and those who eat from the quail are killed "when the flesh was till between their teeth".</fn> In prophetic works, punishment is more natural, but almost every national catastrophe, from defeat in war,<fn>For instance, the defeat at Ai is attributed to the sin of Akhan, while the salvation from Assyria is connected to the righteous Chizkiyahu's prayers.</fn> to famine or drought<fn>The famine in the time of David (Shemuel II 21) is due to Shaul's sin of having killed the Givonites, while the drought in the time of Eliyahu is a direct result of the nation's worship of the Baal.</fn> and the ultimate exile,<fn>Thus, Melakhim 17 lists the sins that led to the exile of the ten tribes, explicitly portraying the event as retribution for sins and not a natural occurrence.  The fall of Yehuda is similarly attributed to sin, with the text blaming the destruction on Menashe and his filling of the land with innocent blood.</fn> is still explained in terms of sin and punishment.<fn>This is highlighted in Sefer Shofetim where the book's cycle of sin and punishment hinges on the idea that when the nation turns to idolatry they are punished with enemies, but when they turn back to Hashem, they merit salvation.</fn> Here, too, prophets go out of their way to show the one to one correspondence between deed and reward.</li> | + | <li><b>Collective</b> – This worldly retribution is also evident on the collective level. In Torah, immediate plague, fire and the like often strikes the nation immediately after rebelling.<fn>For example, the nation is plagued right after their sin at Ba'al Peor, fire immediately rages on those who complained in Tavera, and those who eat from the quail are killed "when the flesh was till between their teeth".</fn> In prophetic works, punishment is more natural, but almost every national catastrophe, from defeat in war,<fn>For instance, the defeat at Ai is attributed to the sin of Akhan, while the salvation from Assyria is connected to the righteous Chizkiyahu's prayers.</fn> to famine or drought<fn>The famine in the time of David (Shemuel II 21) is due to Shaul's sin of having killed the Givonites, while the drought in the time of Eliyahu is a direct result of the nation's worship of the Baal.</fn> and the ultimate exile,<fn>Thus, Melakhim 17 lists the sins that led to the exile of the ten tribes, explicitly portraying the event as retribution for sins and not a natural occurrence.  The fall of Yehuda is similarly attributed to sin, with the text blaming the destruction on Menashe and his filling of the land with innocent blood.</fn> is still explained in terms of sin and punishment.<fn>This is highlighted in Sefer Shofetim where the book's cycle of sin and punishment hinges on the idea that when the nation turns to idolatry they are punished with enemies, but when they turn back to Hashem, they merit salvation.</fn> Here, too, prophets go out of their way to show the one to one correspondence between deed and reward.<fn>There is one major exception to this trend of connecting sin and punishment. No where does Torah suggest that the exile in Egypt was due to sin. This might be the only national catastrophe in Tanakh which is not correlated with wicked deeds.  See <a href="Purposes of the Egyptian Bondage" data-aht="page">Purposes of the Egyptian Bondage</a> for various understandings of the need for the bondage.</fn></li> |
</ul></point> | </ul></point> | ||
<point><b>The post Biblical record</b> – In the post Biblical period, in contrast, God's hand is not nearly as recognizable, miracles are hidden, and there is no immediate retribution. It seems that even where the collective is righteous, they not only are not granted rewards, but sometimes suffer terribly, with entire communities being martyred for their very observance ("קהלות הקדש שמסרו נפשם על קדושת השם")!  This reality is one of the main motivations for this position.</point> | <point><b>The post Biblical record</b> – In the post Biblical period, in contrast, God's hand is not nearly as recognizable, miracles are hidden, and there is no immediate retribution. It seems that even where the collective is righteous, they not only are not granted rewards, but sometimes suffer terribly, with entire communities being martyred for their very observance ("קהלות הקדש שמסרו נפשם על קדושת השם")!  This reality is one of the main motivations for this position.</point> | ||
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<li><b>Consequence of exile</b> – Part of the change might also have been a natural consequence of the exile.  The dispersal led to the breakdown of the collective, making collective retribution impossible. As the majority of the Torah's blessings are aimed at the nation, and many are targeted at the Land of Israel specifically,<fn>See the discussion above.</fn> the exile rendered many simply inapplicable.</li> | <li><b>Consequence of exile</b> – Part of the change might also have been a natural consequence of the exile.  The dispersal led to the breakdown of the collective, making collective retribution impossible. As the majority of the Torah's blessings are aimed at the nation, and many are targeted at the Land of Israel specifically,<fn>See the discussion above.</fn> the exile rendered many simply inapplicable.</li> | ||
</ul></point> | </ul></point> | ||
| − | <point><b>Divine providence</b> – This position suggests that differing levels of providence and | + | <point><b>Divine providence</b> – This position suggests that differing levels of providence and retribution might be connected to the level of Hashem's presence within the nation. The more constant and close Hashem's presence is, the more likely that His wrath (or beneficence) will be felt instantaneously. Thus, in the wilderness period, when Hashem's <i>Shekhinah</i> resided in the midst of the camp, sin often resulted in immediate retribution. In contrast, when Hashem hides His face, reward and punishment is absent.  At times, too, Hashem is present but distant, allowing for this worldly, but delayed retribution.</point> |
<point><b>Turning points</b> – One might point to specific points in history in which shifts in Hashem's mode of providence are evident: after the expulsion from Eden, re-creation of the world post-flood, the sin of the Golden Calf, the sin of the spies and the ultimate exile. Together these testify to an overall shift from the supernatural to the natural, and from immediate to delayed (or totally absent) retribution.<fn>Cf. R. Friedman's The Disappearance of God: A Divine Mystery (New York, 1995) who traces God's diminshing presence throughout Tanakh.  He does not single out these specific turning points, but does attempt to show how Divine providence, revelation, and miraculous intervention slowly disappears over the course of Biblical history.</fn> The following discussion will explore each of these turning points.</point> | <point><b>Turning points</b> – One might point to specific points in history in which shifts in Hashem's mode of providence are evident: after the expulsion from Eden, re-creation of the world post-flood, the sin of the Golden Calf, the sin of the spies and the ultimate exile. Together these testify to an overall shift from the supernatural to the natural, and from immediate to delayed (or totally absent) retribution.<fn>Cf. R. Friedman's The Disappearance of God: A Divine Mystery (New York, 1995) who traces God's diminshing presence throughout Tanakh.  He does not single out these specific turning points, but does attempt to show how Divine providence, revelation, and miraculous intervention slowly disappears over the course of Biblical history.</fn> The following discussion will explore each of these turning points.</point> | ||
<point><b>Expulsion from Eden</b> – Though it is somewhat difficult to know exactly what life was like in Eden, it seems that Hashem's presence there was very tangible and life was somewhat miraculous, with no need to toil for sustenance, trees with supernatural properties, and close contact with the Divine.<fn>It is important to note, however, that one might disagree with this description. The verses states explicitly that Adam was placed in the garden to "work and guard it", suggesting that perhaps all was not miraculously provided for. The nature of both the "Tree of Life" and "Tree of Knowledge" is disputed, with some viewing them as not having any intrinsic, miraculous qualities. [See <a href="The Tree of Knowledge" data-aht="page">The Tree of Knowledge</a> for discussion.]  Finally, though Adam and Chavvah communicate with the Divine, this might not mark a higher level of contact than that of other prophets later in history.</fn>  If so, the expulsion marked a first turning point and distancing of the Divine and miraculous from humankind.</point> | <point><b>Expulsion from Eden</b> – Though it is somewhat difficult to know exactly what life was like in Eden, it seems that Hashem's presence there was very tangible and life was somewhat miraculous, with no need to toil for sustenance, trees with supernatural properties, and close contact with the Divine.<fn>It is important to note, however, that one might disagree with this description. The verses states explicitly that Adam was placed in the garden to "work and guard it", suggesting that perhaps all was not miraculously provided for. The nature of both the "Tree of Life" and "Tree of Knowledge" is disputed, with some viewing them as not having any intrinsic, miraculous qualities. [See <a href="The Tree of Knowledge" data-aht="page">The Tree of Knowledge</a> for discussion.]  Finally, though Adam and Chavvah communicate with the Divine, this might not mark a higher level of contact than that of other prophets later in history.</fn>  If so, the expulsion marked a first turning point and distancing of the Divine and miraculous from humankind.</point> | ||
Version as of 14:34, 6 January 2021
Reward and Punishment
Exegetical Approaches
Individuals Not Rewarded in this World
Individuals do not receive true retribution in this world, getting their just desserts only in the next world.
Sources:R. Yaakov in Bavli Kiddushin and Bavli Chulin,1 Kuzari,2 Rambam, R. Yonah, Ralbag, Ran, R. Chasdai Crescas, perhaps Sefer HaIkkarim,3 Abarbanel,
Biblical blessings – This position must explain the Torah's many promises of reward and punishment, especially considering that many of these are physical in nature,4 implying that they refer to this world. If there is no individual retribution in this world, to what do these refer?
- Collective recompense – R. Crescas, R"Y Albo and Abarbanel5 respond that the retribution spoken about throughout Torah refers only to the collective and speaks of national rather than individual rewards.
- Collective nature – This is supported by the collective nature of the vast majority of the Torah's blessings and curses which speak of war, rain, famine and the like.6
- Plural formulation – As further support for this reading, R"Y Albo points to the plural formulation of the blessings/curses of Vayikra 26,7 which suggests that a group, rather than an individual, is being addressed. He notes that other verses, despite being worded in the singular, explicitly mention or reference the nation8 as well.9
- Larger covenantal context – The context of the blessings and curses of both Vayikra 26 and Devarim 28 is that of a national covenant, further implying that they are aimed at the nation as a whole.
- Rewards of next world – This approach can also suggest that certain rewards10 in Torah do indeed refer to the individual, but to blessings of the next world. Thus, R. Yaakov maintains that the promises of "לְמַעַן יִיטַב לָךְ / לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ" in Devarim 5:15 and Devarim 22:711 refer to the spiritual good and eternal life of the next world.12
- Enablers – In contrast to the above, Rambam13 suggests that even individuals might in fact benefit from the promises of Torah in this world, but he maintains that these do not constitute rewards but rather enablers.14 A life free of troubles, sickness, and war will make it easier for people to observe Hashem's commandments,15 paving the way for one to earn real reward in the next world.16
Evidence from Biblical history – This position must explain historical cases of individuals (from Kayin to David) who appear to be personally rewarded or punished by Hashem already in this world.17
- Rambam would claim that these cases are not examples of punishments and rewards but deterrents or enablers, preparing the person for his full retribution in the next world.
- Others might suggest that these cases are exceptional, either because the individual's actions had ramifications for the nation as a whole (as in the case of the spies or Korach) or because the individuals were leaders who are above the system of law and not easily punished in human courts.18
Difficult verses – Several verses are somewhat difficult for this approach as, at first glance, they appear to speak explicitly of individual (and not collective) retribution in this world specifically:19
- "וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר" – Contrary to this approach, this verse implies that individual punishment20 is not deferred (לֹא יְאַחֵר). It is possible, though, that the verse is not speaking of immediate punishment at all. It simply states that in contrast to the previous verse's promise that righteous deeds will be remembered for thousands of years, a sinner's actions will not affect those generations that come after him (לֹא יְאַחֵר), but only he himself (אֶל פָּנָיו).21
- Individual observance – Verses which speak of rewards for individual observance of specific mitzvot,22 would seem to be speaking also of individual recompense. Several commentators23 claim that, nonetheless, even these refer only to collective retribution.24 Thus, Ralbag understands the promise "לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ" to refer not to personal longevity, but a long national existence in the land of Israel.25
- "אִישׁ אוֹ אִשָּׁה... וְרָבְצָה בּוֹ כׇּל הָאָלָה הַכְּתוּבָה בַּסֵּפֶר הַזֶּה" – This verse implies that the punishments of Devarim 28 will apply even on the individual level. One could say, however, that the verse is saying only that such a sinner should not think that he will escape the collective punishment of the verses.
- "וְשַׂמְתִּי אֲנִי אֶת פָּנַי בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא" – In this verse, Hashem promises Divine punishment to even the individual worshiper of the Molekh. These sources might claim that this is not referring to punishment in this world, as the verse mentions כרת, understood by the Rambam to mean being cut off from the next world.26
Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual? One of the main philosophical motivations for this position is the belief in the primacy of spiritual rewards:
- Abarbanel notes that since observance of Hashem's commandments is essentially a spiritual act, it is only fitting that the ultimate reward be spiritual as well.
- Rambam adds that physical rewards, being meaningless to the soul and paling in comparison to spiritual rewards, are insignificant to the point of being almost worthless. Moreover, the highest pleasure is contemplation of God, and this is best achieved when the soul is not trapped and limited by a body. As such, it is impossible to be fully rewarded in this physical world; retribution must of necessity come only in the next world where the righteous merit to commune with Hashem (נֶהֱנִין מִזִּיו הַשְּׁכִינָה) and the sinners are cut off.27
Nature of the World to Come – According to Rambam, the World to Come refers to the eternal existence of the souls of the deserving after death (and the cutting off of the undeserving). It is a purely spiritual existence where souls exist without a body, basking in Hashem's glory, with no need for food, drink, or sleep. It is not a distinct place to be created in the future after the Messianic era and Resurrection of the Dead,28 but simply how one refers to what happens to each soul immediately after death. This purely spiritual existence is the only true reward.29
Hashem's providence – This reading of reward and punishment is further influenced by these sources' understanding of Divine providence. According to many of these thinkers,30 though there is individual Divine providence, not all merit it to the same degree.31 Moreover, the world is generally run via natural law32 rather than such providence.33 In such a world, judged as it by the deeds of the majority, an individual will not often reap the appropriate recompense for his personal deeds, as doing so would necessitate intervening in nature34 (a degree of providence which many might not deserve).
Today's reality – These sources might also be motivated by their perceptions of reality, in which individuals often do not appear to receive the rewards promised by Torah despite mitzvah observance.35 Positing that the Torah does not actually promise individual retribution in this world resolves the seeming contradiction.36 [By adding that the individual instead gets his just compensation in the next world, they also address the associated and more general problem of theodicy.37]
Is not deferred retribution unjust? One might question the justice of deferred retribution. If a person sins or acts righteously in this world, should he not get his due in this world as well? Is it fair that one needs to wait for the next world to be compensated?
- Rambam appears unperturbed by the question, assuming that the magnitude of the good of the next world renders all rewards of this world negligible. According to him, it is simply impossible to get full reward in this world, so there can be no question of injustice.
- Others might suggest that since this and the next world are one continuum,38 there is no issue in meting out recompense in one world for deeds done in the other.
- Alternatively, one could suggest that in reality justice is not totally deferred; the two worlds are simply run by different judicial systems. In this world, justice is meted out by humans through the court system, while in the next world it is left to the hands of Hashem.
Why isn't עולם הבא mentioned in the Torah? Considering that these sources all assume that "עולם הבא" constitutes the ultimate reward, they must explain why it is never mentioned in Torah. Many explanations have been offered;39 just a few are listed below:
- Ensure proper worship – Rambam explains that Hashem omitted mention of this bliss because He does not want people to serve Him for hopes of reward or fear of punishment, but rather for the sake of Hashem Himself.
- Masses wouldn't understand – Ibn Ezra suggests that since Torah is given to the masses, who would not be able to comprehend the secrets of the next world, Hashem speaks on their level, telling only of the physical rewards of this world.40
- Torah's focus is the nation – R"Y Albo asserts that Torah's focus is the collective rather than the individual, being a covenant between Hashem and the nation. Therefore, there is no room for discussion of the next world which refers only to the fate of the individual.
- Inculcate belief in providence – The Kuzari and Ran41 note that if Torah only spoke of a world to come (as is promised by other religions), there would be no way to verify Hashem's providence and one would have to rely on faith alone that retribution is really to come.42 The Kuzari further adds that, for many, the physical rewards of this world are a greater incentive to observance than promises of the next world.
Is it problematic to hope for reward? Commentators divide on this point.
- Rambam claims that one should observe mitzvot for their own sake, simply because that is God's bidding, and not for hopes of reward. As mentioned, it is for this reason that true rewards are not mentioned in Torah.
- Abarbanel, in contrast, asserts that there is nothing wrong with serving Hashem in hopes of reward, as proven by the many verses in which Hashem Himself says to observe "so that it will be good for you" and the like. He does assert, however, that one should not serve with the hope of achieving physical rewards as these are fleeting and not the true compensation, regardless.
Purpose of rewards / punishments – Many of these sources might view the main goal of rewards and punishments to be simple retribution. A righteous person deserves to benefit and a wicked person deserves to suffer. Had the main goal been motivational, it would seem that this would be better achieved if recompense was received earlier.
Individuals Rewarded in this World
Individuals receive retribution for their actions already in this world, and not only in the next world. This position subdivides regarding the extent of the compensation in this world:
Rewards for All Mitzvot
Individuals gets reward in both this and the next world for observance of every mitzvah.
Biblical blessings – This approach might suggest that all the blessings and curses mentioned in the Torah, even those formulated in the plural46 and which are collective in nature,47 are applicable on the individual level. As many of these are prefaced by formulations such as "אִם שָׁמֹעַ תִּשְׁמְעוּ אֶל מִצְוֺתַי", they would appear to apply to observance of all mitzvot. In addition, the fact that the vast majority are physical in nature would suggest that they refer to retribution in this world and not the next.
Specific mention of the individual – This position might be supported by several verses which explicitly target the individual for reward or punishment:
- "יֶעְשַׁן אַף י״י וְקִנְאָתוֹ בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא" – Devarim 29:17-20 addresses individual sinners, stating that they, too, will be plagued by the curses of Devarim 28. The verses imply that even if the collective is being rewarded and reaping blessings, the sinner will individually suffer the calamities described. Even in this world, then, punishment is individual, and not just collective.
- "וַאֲנִי אֶתֵּן אֶת פָּנַי בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא" – Vayikra 20:1-5 similarly singles out the individual, with Hashem promising Divine punishment to the individual worshiper of the Molekh.
- Individual observance – Other verses don't explicitly mention an individual reward, but as they speak of retribution for individual observance or transgression of mitzvot, they imply that the reward, too, is for the individual.48
"וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר" – Devarim 7:10's statement that punishment will not be delayed (לֹא יְאַחֵר) to individual sinners further supports the idea that individuals receive retribution already in this world.
Plural formulation – This position is not troubled by the plural formulation used in describing several of the blessings and curses as this does not preclude them from referring to the individual.49
Evidence from Biblical history – The fact that many individuals in Tanakh (including Kayin, Yehuda's children, Miriam, Korach, David, or Yerovam) receive immediate punishment already in this world is further proof that retribution is not deferred to the next world.
Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual? According to this approach, though the ultimate reward is the spiritual one in the next world, justice dictates that one receive physical rewards as well. Since both one's body and soul participated in the positive or negative deed,50 one deserves both physical and spiritual retribution.
Deferred justice is unfair – This approach might be further motivated by a discomfort with the idea of deferring punishment to the next world. One should receive retribution when and where the crime or good deed was performed ("מקום הרשע שמה המשפט") and so retribution should be given already in this world.
Divine providence – This approach divides in how it views Divine providence and how Hashem ensures that each person gets his recompense:
- Miraculous rewards – One might suggest that this world is run by individual providence and Hashem consistently actively intervenes in nature so as to reward and punish as deserved. As such, though many verses promise punishment which is collective in nature and which would seem to unavoidably prevent the righteous from receiving proper recompense, this position would claim that Hashem intervenes to ensure that only the wicked individuals suffer when calamities fall, while the righteous are spared and instead given their proper reward.51
- Natural rewards – Netziv, in contrast, asserts that rewards and punishments are built into the very fabric of observance and transgression. Performing mitzvot naturally brings blessing in its wake and transgressions naturally bring calamity.52 This, though, does not mean that a righteous individual will automatically be saved from collective afflictions;53 even innocents can be caught in a general catastrophe.54 According to this logic, though all might be rewarded for their good deeds in this world, they might simultaneously get punishments that they do not deserve (and vice versa).55
Today's reality – One might question this approach from the perceived reality of today, in which it does not appear that people always get rewarded in this world. R. D"Z Hoffmann56 responds that even though at times this might be our experience, one must view these as exceptional cases whose reasoning is unknown.57
Is it problematic to hope for reward? These sources might suggest that there is nothing wrong with serving Hashem with hopes for even physical reward.58 After all, Hashem Himself continuously alludes to such blessings, encouraging the nation to observe His commandments "so that... ".
Purpose of Rewards/ Punishments – This approach might consider the motivational role of rewards and punishments to be just as important as the retributive function. As such, the Torah promises immediate rewards and punishments, recognizing that recompense that affects the individual already in this world is a much stronger motivator/deterrent for behavior than promises of future blessings.
Rewards for Select Mitzvot
Though many individual deeds are rewarded or punished only in the next world, there is a select group of actions for which one receives recompense already in this world.
Sources:Mishna Peah and Tosefta Peah,59 R. Yochanan in Bavli Shabbat,60 perhaps R. Saadia Gaon, Chovot HaLevavot,
For which mitzvot? Mishna Peah and Tosefta Peah list both the mitzvot and sins for which one receives retribution also in this world:
- Rewarded for interpersonal acts – Mishna Peah notes that honoring parents, acts of kindness, peace-making and learning Torah all merit reward even in this world.61
- Rambam explains that the common denominator is that all these are interpersonal mitzvot,62 and suggests that the Mishna is differentiating between these deeds, for which one gets immediate reward,63 and mitzvot between man and his Creator, for which one reaps reward only in the next world.
- Chovot Halevavot makes a similar distinction,64 but in contrast to the Mishna, he claims that the former is rewarded only in this world, and the latter only in the World to Come
- Punished for severe crimes – Tosefta Peah enumerates crimes for which one is punished in both worlds, listing idolatry, murder, sexual misdeeds and gossip. The common denominator might be the severity of the crime, as three of the four constitute those commands for which one is obligated to forfeit one's life rather than transgress.65
Evidence from Biblical blessings – The Mishna and Tosefta's distinction between those deeds which are only rewarded collectively (מצוות בין אדם למקום) and those for which also the individual receives retribution already in this world (מצוות בין אדם לחברו and severe crimes) might be rooted in the Biblical text:66
- Collective blessings for service of Hashem – The majority of blessings and curses in Torah67 speak only of general observance68 and are aimed at the collective.69 This approach would suggest that these relate mainly to the realm of "מצוות בין אדם למקום". This is supported by the fact that the verses speak of observance in terms of "loving" or "fearing" God, and explain that punishment comes "תַּחַת אֲשֶׁר לֹא עָבַדְתָּ אֶת י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ" and the like, all of which focus on a relationship with God rather than man.
- Individual blessings for interpersonal deeds – Other blessings and curses refer to observance of specific mitzvot,70 and appear to be aimed at the individual.71 Almost all of these refer to deeds between man and his fellow man (honoring parents, being honest in business, giving tithes or loans to the poor), or to severe crimes such as idolatry or sexual misdeeds. In fact, almost every mitzvah listed in the Mishna and Tosefta finds their counterpart among those singled out by Torah72 for individual retribution.73
Evidence from Biblical history – There is ample Biblical evidence of Divine punishments meted out to individuals who committed the various crimes mentioned in the Tosefta.74 However, alongside these, there is also evidence of individuals being punished for other crimes not listed (such as Korach, Datan and Aviram being punished for rebelling). This position might explain that there are always exceptional cases of punishment, but that does not contradict the general rule that as a whole, people only receive retribution n this world for the select deeds discussed above.75
Why differentiate? This approach must explain why there should be a difference in reward for different mitzvot:
- Different realms – Rambam explains that observance of law between man and His Creator is essentially a spiritual act and is thus rewarded in the spiritual sphere. It is appropriate, though, that non-spiritual acts (such as מצוות בין אדם לחברו) receive compensation also in the physical world.76
- Severity of crime – Crimes of the severity of murder or idolatry might be punished in both worlds due simply to the weight of the crime.
"מְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר" – This approach might suggest that the immediate punishment mentioned in this verse refers specifically to those who have committed murder, worshiped idolatry or engaged in forbidden sexual relations. Punishment for other crimes, though, might be deferred and dispensed only in the next world.
Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual? This position does not view spiritual rewards and punishments as necessarily being of higher value than physical ones. Instead, each reward must match the deed performed; in some cases one type of reward is appropriate and in others a different one is.
Divine providence – These sources might suggest that there is individual Divine providence in this world, as evidenced by the fact that Hashem does reward individuals for select mitzvot. Cases where one is not rewarded are not simply the product of chance, but intentional deferring of spiritual reward.
Deferred justice – This position sees no injustice in deferring spiritual rewards to the next world, as these simply cannot be provided in this world.
Today's reality – As the Torah does not claim that all individual deeds will be rewarded in this world, the fact that blessings are not always evident is less troubling. This position would still have to explain the absence of specific expected rewards such as long life for honoring parents. It might suggest, as does R. D"Z Hoffmann, that such instances should be seen as aberrations and not the norm.
For Select Individuals
Retribution is given in this world only to either the totally righteous or the totally wicked.
Sources:Ramban
Biblical blessings – Ramban claims that many of the of blessings in Torah, like those of Vayikra 26 and Devarim 28, are aimed at the collective and refer to this world.77 However, there are also promises, like those of Shemot 15 or Shemot 23:23-27, which target the individual.78 It seems that according to Ramban, though, all the rewards mentioned in Torah, be they collective or individual, are relevant only for the totally righteous or totally wicked.79
Verses which single out the individual – Is there evidence that verses which target the individual for retribution refer only to the extremely righteous or wicked?
- The various verses which single out the individual for punishment, such as Vayikra 20:1-5 or Devarim 29:17-20 do appear to be speaking of particularly wicked people, those who worship Molekh or reject Torah, fitting Ramban's criteria for punishment in this world.
- Shemot 15:26 and Shemot 23:23-27, which Ramban claims target the individual, speak of general observance (וַעֲבַדְתֶּם אֵת י״י / אִם שָׁמוֹעַ תִּשְׁמַע לְקוֹל י״י) and Ramban appears to assume that this implies full observance (and not just fulfilling a specific command) in which case the reward here, too, is limited to the totally righteous.
- It is not clear how Ramban would read verses which speak of individual reward for specific mitzvot such as honoring parents, honesty in business, and the like. He might suggest that here, too, rewards are reserved only to people who are also otherwise righteous. Alternatively, he could claim that some of the verses refer only to rewards in the next world.80
Verses which speak of the collective – A similar argument might be made regarding verses which speak of collective rewards and punishments. These are granted for general observance, being prefaced by statements such as: "אִם בְּחֻקֹּתַי תֵּלֵכוּ", "וּשְׁמַרְתֶּם אֶת כׇּל הַמִּצְוָה", "וְהָיָה אִם שָׁמוֹעַ תִּשְׁמַע בְּקוֹל י״י ". Some verses further mention observance of "all mitzvot" ("כׇּל הַמִּצְוָה"). As such, Ramban might explain that the verses refer only to a situation in which the vast majority of the nation is observing the vast majority of the mitzvot. Only when the nation as a whole can be said to be following in Hashem's ways will the rewards listed take full effect.
Evidence from Biblical and contemporary history
- Individual punishment – Many of the individuals punished in Tanakh, such as Korach, Datan and Aviram, or Achav, can easily be labelled "רשעים גמורים", fitting Ramban's understanding of reward and punishment. Others, though, such as Miryam, Nadav and Avihu, or David, despite having sinned (even egregiously) would not appear to be "totally wicked". Ramban might suggest that these are exceptional cases in which Divine intervention was necessary due specifically to the stature of the people involved.81
- Collective punishment – On the collective level, Ramban suggests that the punishments of Vayikra 26 were fulfilled in the time of the destruction of the first Beit Hamikdash and exile, while those of Devarim refer to the present exile. Tanakh ascribes the first destruction to the mass idolatry and innocent blood which filled Yehuda, suggesting that the people were indeed "totally wicked". It is a bit more difficult to know the extent of the sins which brought about the second destruction, but Ramban would likely say that then, too, the nation as a whole had drastically veered from Hashem's ways.
- Individual and collective reward – Ramban notes that, in contrast to the fulfilled curses, none of the blessings promised in Vayikra and Devarim have come true on either the individual or collective level, as the nation was never righteous enough to merit them.82 He suggests that it might be first in Messianic times, when the entire nation turns to Hashem, that the blessings come to fruition.
Present reality – The fact that not all individuals appear to be rewarded for observance (or punished for transgressions) in this world might, in part, motivate this reading. According to Ramban, this to be expected, as most individuals are not totally righteous or wicked.83
Hashem's providence – Ramban's understanding of reward and punishment correlates with his understanding of Divine providence.84 According to him, though there is individual providence, the world is generally run by nature. Hashem's providence, for the most part, is evident only over the collective who are judged according to the deeds of the majority. It extends to the individual only in two exceptional cases: Hashem will miraculously intervene in this world to reward the totally righteous or punish the totally wicked.85
Retribution: miraculous or natural – Ramban views all retribution in this world, be it for the individual or for the collective, as miraculous. He explains that there is no natural connection between observance of Hashem's mitzvot and rain or peace and so if the nation or individual is blessed with these as the result of observance, it must be due only to Hashem's providence and intervention.86
Ultimate reward and nature of the World to Come – According to Ramban, the ultimate reward is in the World to Come. As the vast majority of individuals do not receive retribution in this world, compensation must be granted later. In his view, the World to Come is an actual physical place which will be created after the Messianic age and Resurrection of the Dead, in which the resurrected will live eternally. As such, it is not a purely spiritual reward, but one for both the body and soul (though the body will not have all the same physical properties it does in this world). Ramban might suggest, as does R"Y Albo, that rewards are for both the body and soul, since both together performed the deed worthy of retribution.87
Why is the World to Come not mentioned in Torah? According to Ramban, only material rewards are mentioned in Torah, since only such retribution is miraculous.88 The existence of a World to Come, in contrast, should be expected, for it is natural that the human soul will return to its Creator and live eternally.
Is not deferred retribution unjust? Ramban might suggest that since the possibility of reward in this world exists for those who are sufficiently deserving, it is not unjust that not all reap such rewards.
Is it problematic to hope for reward? Ramban suggests that there is a hierarchy in mitzvah performance. Those who perform with hopes of either material or spiritual reward or out of fear of punishment are at the lowest level (though they still merit reward). Those who serve out of love, but are still involved in matters of this world, are at the next level. Finally, those who are able to leave all physical matters behind and turn their entire being and thoughts to Hashem, with their soul clinging to the Divine, are at the highest level. Like Eliyahu, such individuals will merit to live forever.
Changing Rewards
Hashem's modes of providence have changed over time. Though immediate reward and punishment for both the collective and individual is manifest from the Biblical through First Temple periods, it diminished thereafter as Hashem's initial overt providence gradually became covert.
Biblical blessings – This position assumes that Biblical blessings relate to both the collective and the individual.89 All of these, though, refer only to the Wilderness and First Temple periods when Hashem's providence was manifest, be it in the Mishkan or Mikdash.
"מְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר" – This verse, which promises immediate retribution, just like other promises of punishment in Tanakh, refers only to the Biblical and First Temple periods. It is an accurate description of that era, where we see people not only getting their just desserts, but often being paid for their crimes almost immediately after committing them. It is not, however, meant to be true of all time periods.
"עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ" – Many of the blessings and curses are directly related to the land of Israel, promising children, prosperity, or longevity specifically "בָּאָרֶץ"90 or "עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ".91. This might support the idea that Biblical promises are aimed at the nation in the period before the destruction and exile, and not afterwards.
The Biblical record – Throughout the period of Tanakh, there is evidence of both individual and collective retribution, but with a gradual reduction in its miraculous and immediate nature.
- Individual – In Torah, individuals including the spies, Nadav and Avihu, Datan and Aviram, or Miryam are all miraculously punished for their crimes almost instantaneously.92 In later books,93 punishment is still given in this world, but it tends to be more natural and a bit less immediate.94 In such cases, prophetic rebukes often precede or follow the retribution, ensuring that the sinner sees the causal relationship and attributes calamities to sin.
- Collective – This worldly retribution is also evident on the collective level. In Torah, immediate plague, fire and the like often strikes the nation immediately after rebelling.95 In prophetic works, punishment is more natural, but almost every national catastrophe, from defeat in war,96 to famine or drought97 and the ultimate exile,98 is still explained in terms of sin and punishment.99 Here, too, prophets go out of their way to show the one to one correspondence between deed and reward.100
The post Biblical record – In the post Biblical period, in contrast, God's hand is not nearly as recognizable, miracles are hidden, and there is no immediate retribution. It seems that even where the collective is righteous, they not only are not granted rewards, but sometimes suffer terribly, with entire communities being martyred for their very observance ("קהלות הקדש שמסרו נפשם על קדושת השם")! This reality is one of the main motivations for this position.
Explaining the change – This position might explain Hashem's changing mode of providence in several ways:
- Reaction to sin – In Torah, Hashem warns the nation that sometimes sin will bring in its wake the hiding of Hashem's providence: "וְאָנֹכִי הַסְתֵּר אַסְתִּיר פָּנַי בַּיּוֹם הַהוּא".101 As such, it is possible that the sins that caused the destruction of the Beit HaMikdash might have simultaneously ushered in a period of "הסתר פנים". This might be viewed as either a punishment, or, alternatively, as a necessity for survival. Being left to nature leaves room for potential calamities, but probably not total destruction (especially if the nation is dispersed), whereas an undeserving nation who is under direct providence might be utterly destroyed.
- Opportunity for growth – Alternatively, one might view the naturalistic model of providence in a much more positive light, as an opportunity for spiritual growth. Living in world of miraculous, immediate retribution both significantly reduces one's free will, and invites one to serve out of fear rather than love. If Hashem's rewards are much less evident, one's observance is of a totally different quality, with "איהבת ה'" at its core. Though it is a challenge to see God's hand, the search brings maturation and growth. However, spiritual development via hidden providence is only possible if it is preceded by a period of overt miracles which instill faith and recognition of God. As such, the move towards natural guidance was gradual.
- Consequence of exile – Part of the change might also have been a natural consequence of the exile. The dispersal led to the breakdown of the collective, making collective retribution impossible. As the majority of the Torah's blessings are aimed at the nation, and many are targeted at the Land of Israel specifically,102 the exile rendered many simply inapplicable.
Divine providence – This position suggests that differing levels of providence and retribution might be connected to the level of Hashem's presence within the nation. The more constant and close Hashem's presence is, the more likely that His wrath (or beneficence) will be felt instantaneously. Thus, in the wilderness period, when Hashem's Shekhinah resided in the midst of the camp, sin often resulted in immediate retribution. In contrast, when Hashem hides His face, reward and punishment is absent. At times, too, Hashem is present but distant, allowing for this worldly, but delayed retribution.
Turning points – One might point to specific points in history in which shifts in Hashem's mode of providence are evident: after the expulsion from Eden, re-creation of the world post-flood, the sin of the Golden Calf, the sin of the spies and the ultimate exile. Together these testify to an overall shift from the supernatural to the natural, and from immediate to delayed (or totally absent) retribution.103 The following discussion will explore each of these turning points.
Expulsion from Eden – Though it is somewhat difficult to know exactly what life was like in Eden, it seems that Hashem's presence there was very tangible and life was somewhat miraculous, with no need to toil for sustenance, trees with supernatural properties, and close contact with the Divine.104 If so, the expulsion marked a first turning point and distancing of the Divine and miraculous from humankind.
Post-flood: from the universal to the national – In the period of the flood, God's providence and the connection between sin and punishment was so strong that sin could bring in its wake total destruction of all life. Afterwards, in recognition of man's limitations, Hashem softened His retribution, with it never again to appear on so mass and obvious a scale.105 Perhaps, though, a change of equal or even greater import was the decision to single out one nation to have a unique relationship with God. After the flood, Avraham emerges, and his descendants alone merit Hashem's special providence - with its accompanying obligations, rewards and punishments.
Sin of the Calf: from "ויחר אפי" to "ארך אפיים" – The wilderness period is marked by God's instantaneous punishment of the sinful, stemming from His direct presence in the nation's midst. R"M Leibtag106 notes that after the sin of the Calf, Hashem recognized that this was potentially disastrous107 and therefore decided to remove His presence. Moshe, uncomfortable with the solution, suggested a compromise, that Hashem mix justice with mercy and allow for non-immediate retribution. The thirteen attributes attest to this new type of providence, one in which Hashem is no longer "filled with anger" but "long to anger", (ארך אפים), no longer "עשה חסד" but "נוצר חסד".108 The new model, though, is a mixed blessing. Holding judgement at bay allows for repentance and reconciliation, but holding back rewards simultaneously allows for cases of "צדיק ורע לו".
Sin of the Spies: from miracle to nature – The Netziv suggests that the switch from total providence to a more natural existence was initiated by the people themselves during the story of the spies. Unable to handle the intensity of having Hashem in their midst (with its accompanying immediate retribution), they, of their own accord, requested His distance and to be guided in a more natural way, as evidenced by their request to send spies.109 Netziv asserts that had it not been for the nation's request, both the conquest and subsequent life in Israel would have been totally supernatural.110 Hashem, though, leads the people as they seek him, and so beginning in the fortieth year, He began to hide His providence and allow nature to guide.111
Exile – The Book of Esther, taking place in exile, perhaps best demonstrates the final move to hidden providence.112 Hashem is totally absent from the book, there are no overt miracles, and neither the danger nor the salvation is explained in terms of sin or virtue.113
Role of prophecy – The end of prophecy might be directly related to the diminishing of both Hashem's providence and immediate retribution. As prophets provide a link between man and Hashem, His distancing of Himself naturally means limiting prophecy as well. Moreover, when retribution is pushed off to the distant future or another world, one of the main functions of a prophet – warning that sin will bring punishment – is no longer relevant. There is not much point for a prophet to warn of retribution that is to come only in hundreds of years.
Is not deferred retribution unjust? This position might reply in one of two almost opposite ways:
- Undesired – One might agree that deferred justice really is not desired. Hashem brings it only as punishment for sin.
- Necessary – Alternatively, one can claim that it is a desired necessity, but a double edged sword. On one hand, deferring retribution is an act of mercy, as it allows for the possibility of repentance and the potential averting of punishment altogether. However, as not only punishments but also rewards are delayed, it simultaneously allows for one to suffer unduly in this world.114
Is it problematic to hope for reward? According to this position, the ideal is to serve Hashem and observe his commandments out of love and not for fear of punishment or hope of reward. The present absence of immediate retribution encourages this.
