Reward and Punishment/2

Reward and Punishment

Exegetical Approaches

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Individuals Rewarded in this World

Individuals are compensated for their actions already in this world, and not only in the next world.

Sources:one opinion in Bavli KiddushinKiddushin 39bAbout the Bavli, perhaps R. Saadia GaonCommentary Bereshit 6:7HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:1HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 6:5HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 8:2HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9:1HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9:2About R. Saadia Gaon, Chovot HaLevavot4:4About R. Bachya ibn Pakuda, RambanBereshit 17:1Bereshit 18:19Shemot 6:2Shemot 13:16Vayikra 18:4-5Vayikra 26:11Vayikra 26:12Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 11:13Devarim 11:13About R. Moshe b. Nachman, perhaps ShadalDevarim 6:24Yeshayahu IntroductionAbout R. Shemuel David Luzzatto¹, NetzivVayikra 26:3Devarim 5:29Devarim 6:24Devarim 22:7About R. Naftali Tzvi Yehuda Berlin, R. David Zvi HoffmannShemot 20:11Devarim 6:25About R. David Zvi Hoffmann

Total or partial compensation? This position subdivides regarding the extent of the reward in this world:

• For all mitzvot – Netziv claims that one gets reward in both this and the next world for observance of every mitzvah.²  One might explain that since both one's body and soul participated in the deed, one deserves both physical and spiritual reward.
• For select mitzvot – Others claim that the retribution in this world is limited to observance or transgression of specific commandments:
• Interpersonal acts –  Mishnah PeahPeah 1:1About Mishna Peah mentions specific mitzvot for which one gets reward also in this world, including honoring parents, acts of kindness and peace-making. RambamCommentary on the Mishna Peah 1:1About R. Moshe b. Maimon notes that the common denominator is that all are interpersonal mitzvot, and suggests that the Mishnah is distinguishing between these, for which one gets reward already in this world,³ and mitzvot between man and his Creator, for which one reaps reward only in the next world.⁴  Spiritual acts are rewarded in the spiritual sphere; non-spiritual ones are compensated for also in the physical world.⁵
• Severe crimes – Tosefta PeahPeah 1:2About the Tosefta enumerates crimes for which one is punished in both worlds, listing idolatry, murder, sexual misdeeds and gossip. These might be singled out due to their severity; punishment is just one world does not suffice.⁶
• Mitzvot singled out in the Torah – One might alternatively suggest that only the specific mitzvot in Torah which explicitly promise compensation for individual observance are rewarded in this world. These would include:  honoring parents, sending away the mother bird, honesty in business, giving charity, or worshiping idolatry.
• For select individuals – Ramban suggests that though most people will not be compensated in this world, as the world is generally run by natural order, the totally righteous and the totally wicked who merit individual providence might get their just due in this world as well.

Blessings of the Torah

Why not reward the individual only in this world?

Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual?

Divine providence

Are the rewards of this world natural or miraculous?

Individuals Not Rewarded in this World

Individuals do not receive true retribution in this world, getting their just desserts only in the next world.

Sources:R. Yaakov in Bavli KiddushinKiddushin 39bKiddushin 40bAbout the Bavli and Bavli ChulinChulin 142aAbout the Bavli, perhaps Kuzari3:19About R. Yehuda HaLevi,⁷ RambamCommentary on the Mishna Peah 1:1Commentary on the Mishna Sanhedrin 10:1Commentary on the Mishna Avot 1:3Hilkhot Teshuvah 8:1-3Hilkhot Teshuvah 8:5-8Hilkhot Teshuvah 9Hilkhot Teshuvah 10:1-2Hilkhot Teshuvah 10:4-5Moreh Nevukhim 3:18Moreh Nevukhim 3:27Moreh Nevukhim 3:28Moreh Nevukhim 3:51About R. Moshe b. Maimon, R. YonahAvot 4:2About R. Yonah b. Avraham Gerondi, RalbagVayikra 26:4-5Devarim 5:29Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 22:7Shemot Beur HaParashah 20:11Shemot Toalot 23:25Vayikra Toalot 26:3Devarim Toalot 6:24Milchamot Hashem 4:4Milchamot Hashem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom, RanDerashot HaRan 8About R. Nissim Gerondi, R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:4About R. Chasdai Crescas, Sefer HaIkkarim4:104:114:294:304:334:394:40About R. Yosef Albo,⁸ ?AbarbanelShemot 20:11Vayikra 26:3Devarim 4:15Devarim 22:6Devarim 32 IntroductionNachalat Avot Mishna Avot 1:3About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel,

Biblical blessings – This position must explain the Torah's many promises of reward and punishment, especially considering that many of these are physical in nature,⁹ implying that they refer to this world.  If there is no individual retribution in this world, to what do these refer?

• Collective recompense – R. Crescas, R"Y Albo and Abarbanel¹⁰ respond that the retribution spoken about throughout Torah refers only to the collective and speaks of national rather than individual rewards. 
• This is supported by the collective nature of the vast majority of the Torah's blessings and curses which speak of war, rain, famine and the like.¹¹
• As further support for this reading, R"Y Albo further points to the plural formulation of the blessings/curses of Vayikra 26, which suggests that a group, rather than an individual, is being addressed. He notes that other verses, despite being worded in the singular, explicitly mention or reference the nation.¹² 
• In addition, the collective context of specific verses implies that even surrounding verses which could theoretically be explained to refer only to the individual refer to the group as well.¹³
• Some commentators¹⁴ suggest that even verses which speak of rewards for individual observance of specific mitzvot, like the promise of long life for honoring one's parents in Shemot 20:11,¹⁵ refer to collective retribution.¹⁶ RalbagVayikra 26:4-5Devarim 5:29Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 22:7Shemot Beur HaParashah 20:11Shemot Toalot 23:25Vayikra Toalot 26:3Devarim Toalot 6:24Milchamot Hashem 4:4Milchamot Hashem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom notes that a society in which people revere their parents is one in which people have respect for their elders, which in turn leads to general Torah observance, meriting the nation to live in Israel and not be exiled.¹⁷
• Rewards of next world – This approach can also suggest that certain rewards¹⁸ in Torah do indeed refer to the individual, but to blessings of the next world.  Thus, R. Yaakov maintains that the promises of "לְמַעַן יִיטַב לָךְ / לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ" in Devarim 5:15 and Devarim 22:7¹⁹ refer to the spiritual good and eternal life of the next world.  This, however, is difficult in this specific case, as Devarim 5 explicitly states, "עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ", suggesting that the promise applies to this world. Nonetheless, the concept can be applied to other verses such as  as Devarim 5:25, Devarim 6:24, and Devarim 12:28.²⁰
• Enablers (or obstacles) – In contrast to the above, Rambam²¹ suggests that even individuals might in fact benefit from the promises of Torah in this world, but he maintains that these do not constitute rewards but rather enablers. A life free of troubles, sickness, and war will make it easier for people to observe Hashem's commandments,²² paving the way for one to earn real reward in the next world.²³  

Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual? One of the main philosophical motivations for this position is the belief in the primacy of spiritual rewards:

• AbarbanelShemot 20:11Vayikra 26:3Devarim 4:15Devarim 22:6Devarim 32 IntroductionNachalat Avot Mishna Avot 1:3About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel notes that since observance of Hashem's commandments is essentially a spiritual act, it is only fitting that the ultimate reward be spiritual as well.
• RambamCommentary on the Mishna Peah 1:1Commentary on the Mishna Sanhedrin 10:1Commentary on the Mishna Avot 1:3Hilkhot Teshuvah 8:1-3Hilkhot Teshuvah 8:5-8Hilkhot Teshuvah 9Hilkhot Teshuvah 10:1-2Hilkhot Teshuvah 10:4-5Moreh Nevukhim 3:18Moreh Nevukhim 3:27Moreh Nevukhim 3:28Moreh Nevukhim 3:51About R. Moshe b. Maimon adds that physical rewards, being meaningless to the soul and paling in comparison to spiritual rewards, are insignificant to the point of being almost worthless.  Moreover, the highest pleasure is contemplation of God, and this is best achieved when the soul is not trapped and limited by a body.  As such, it is impossible to be fully rewarded in this physical world; retribution must of necessity come only in the next world where the righteous merit to commune with Hashem (נֶהֱנִין מִזִּיו הַשְּׁכִינָה) and the sinners are cut off.²⁴

Hashem's providence – This reading of reward and punishment is further influenced by these sources' understanding of Divine providence. According to many of these thinkers,²⁵ though there is individual Divine providence, not all merit it to the same degree.²⁶ Moreover, the world is generally run via natural law²⁷ rather than such providence.²⁸  In such a world, judged as it by the deeds of the majority, it is difficult to reward an individual for his personal deeds, as doing so will often necessitate intervening in nature²⁹ (which many might not deserve).

Reality that appears to contradict the Torah – These sources might also be motivated by their perceptions of reality, in which individuals often do not appear to receive the rewards promised by Torah despite mitzvah observance.³⁰  Positing that the Torah does not actually promise individual retribution in this world resolves the seeming contradiction.³¹  [By adding that the individual instead gets his just compensation in the next world, they also address the associated and more general problem of theodicy.³²]

Is not deferred retribution unjust? One might question the justice of deferred retribution.  If a person sins or acts righteously in this world, should he not get his due in this world as well?  Is it fair that one needs to wait for the next world to be compensated? 

• Rambam appears unperturbed by the question, assuming that the magnitude of the good of the next world renders all rewards of this world negligible. According to him, it is simply impossible to get full reward in this world, so there can be no question of injustice.
• Others might suggest that since this and the next world are really one continuum,³³ there is no issue in meting out recompense in one world for deeds done in the other.

Nature of עולם הבא

• According to Rambam, "עולם הבא" refers to the eternal existence of the souls of the deserving after death (and the cutting off of the undeserving).  It is a purely spiritual existence where souls exist without a body, basking in Hashem's glory, with no need for food, drink, or sleep.  It is not a distinct place to be created in the future after the Messianic era and Resurrection of the Dead,³⁴ but simply how one refers to what happens to each soul immediately after death.
• One could have alternatively suggested, as do R. Saadia Gaon and Ramban, that Olam Haba is an actual physical place which will be created after the Messianic age and Resurrection of the Dead, in which the resurrected will live eternally. If so, the ultimate reward is for both the body and soul, and is not purely spiritual (though bodies will not need physical sustenance as they do in this world).  R"Y Albo explains that since both the body and soul performed mitzvot (and neither was fully rewarded in this world) they both deserve reward in the next world.

Why isn't עולם הבא mentioned in the Torah? Considering that these sources all  assume that "עולם הבא" constitutes the ultimate reward, they must explain why it is never mentioned in Torah. Many explanations have been offered;³⁵ just a few are listed below:

• Rambam explains that Hashem does not want people to serve Him for hopes of reward or fear of punishment, but rather for the sake of Hashem Himself.
• Ibn EzraShemot Second Commentary 20:11Shemot Second Commentary 23:25Devarim 5:15Devarim 32:39About R. Avraham ibn Ezra suggests that since Torah is given to the masses, who would not be able to comprehend the secrets of the next world, Hashem speaks on their level, telling only of the physical rewards of this world.
• R"Y Albo asserts that Torah's focus is the collective rather than the individual, being a covenant between Hashem and the nation. Therefore there is no room for discussion of Olam Haba which refers only to the fate of the individual.
• The Kuzari and Ran³⁶ note that if Torah only spoke of a world to come (as is promised by other religions), there would be no way to verify Hashem's providence and one would have to rely on faith alone that retribution is really to come.³⁷  The Kuzari further adds that, for many, the physical rewards of this world are a greater incentive to observance than promises of the next world.

Is it problematic to hope for reward? Commentators divide on this point.

• Rambam claims that one should observe mitzvot for their own sake, simply because that is God's bidding, and not for hopes of reward. As mentioned, it is for this reason that true rewards are not mentioned in Torah.
• Abarbanel, in contrast, asserts that there is nothing wrong with serving Hashem in hopes of reward, as proven by the many verses in which Hashem Himself says to observe "so that it will be good for you" and the like. He does assert, however, that one should not serve with only physical rewards in mind as these are fleeting and not the true compensation, regardless.

"וְשַׂמְתִּי אֲנִי אֶת פָּנַי בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא"

Purpose of rewards / punishments

Changing Rewards

Hashem's modes of providence have changed over time.  Though immediate reward and punishment is manifest in the Biblical and First Temple periods, it disappeared thereafter as Hashem's initial overt providence gradually became covert.

"עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ"

¹ In his introduction to Yeshayahu, Shadal speaks about how one can only understand Tanakh if one recognizes that there is Divine providence and reward and punishment in this world.  However, he is not explicit if he is referring to the individual or only the collective. In the continuation of his comments, though, he speaks of individuals who erroneously attribute success to themselves rather than Hashem, implying that even an individual's success in this world should be viewed as a reward from Hashem.

² This is how he understands the Mishnah in Kiddushin as well, "׳כל העושה מצוה אחת מטיבין לו ומאריכין לו ימיו ונוחל את הארץ׳", that for observance of each mitzvah one gets "good" in this world, and also a portion in the next.

³ In some printed editions of Rambam's commentary, the translation reads, "יקבל כמו כן שכר מהענין ההוא", explicitly referring to the good that the individual will receive as a reward.  It R. Kapach's edition, however, he uses the term "תועלת", benefit.  If so, Rambam might simply be speaking of the natural benefits of proper interactions with the other and not real "reward".  [This reading would fit better with Rambam's overall approach to reward and punishment discussed in the second approach below.].

⁴ This distinction was already made by Chovot HaLevavot which might have influenced the Rambam's reading (though R. Bachya does not connect the idea to Mishnah Peah.) R. Bachya distinguishes between "concealed" obligations of the heart (those that affect only the individual and God) and "revealed" obligations of the limbs (those that affect others as well).  In contrast to the Mishnah, though, he claims that the former is rewarded only in this world, and the latter only in the World to Come. Visible duties get visible rewards, while concealed ones are rewarded with the hidden good of the next world. R. Bachya points to Devarim 29:28 as support, "הַנִּסְתָּרֹת לַה' אֱלֹהֵינוּ וְהַנִּגְלֹת לָׄנׄוּׄ וּׄלְׄבָׄנֵׄיׄנׄוּׄ עַׄד עוֹלָם".

⁵ Since the interaction with the other is this worldly, it deserves reward here, but since the very observance of the command, an act of obedience to Hashem, is a spiritual act, it is deserving of compensation also in the next world.

⁶ Though gossip would seem to be a "minor" crime, its inclusion in the list and the statement "" suggests that the Tosefta is trying to underscore how serious the sin is.

⁷ R. Yehuda HaLevi speaks of the collective retribution of this world and the individual rewards of the World to Come, but suggests that there might also be at least minimal reward to the individual, too, in this world: "וְעוֹד שֶׁבָּעוֹלָם הַזֶּה יִתֵּן לָהֶם תְּמוּרָה טוֹבָה וְיֵיטִיב לָהֶם בִּקְצָת טוֹבָה יִהְיוּ בָהּ נִכָּרִים מִשְּׁכֵנֵיהֶם".

⁸ This seems to be how R"Y Albo understands the rewards/punishments mentioned in Torah as a whole, as he explicitly states that Torah never speaks of individual retribution in this world, only of national recompense (ונתבאר מדברינו שלא נזכר בתורה השכר האישיי הגשמיי כמו שחשבו רבים אלא הרוחני הפרטי והגשמיי הכללי).  At first glance his comments in Sefer HaIkkarim 4:294:294:40About R. Yosef Albo appear to contradict this as he writes: והדעת הרביעי הוא דעת מי שיאמין שהשכר ממנו גשמי ובעולם הזה וממנו רוחני ובעולם הבא אחר המות, וזהו דעת תורתנו הקדושה שיעדה יעודים גשמיים פרטיים לצדיקים כמו לאבות ולזולתם".  It is possible, though, that here too, R"Y Albo is referring to collective physical rewards, but noting that also exceptional individuals such as the Patriarchs will merit such rewards as well.  [Alternatively, he might maintain that even though the Torah does not mention specific rewards for the individual, the individual nonetheless does receive rewards in both worlds.]

⁹ See, for instance the rewards and punishments promised in Shemot 15:26,  Vayikra 26, Devarim 7:11-16, Devarim 11:13-25, Devarim 28 or Devarim 29:21-27.  As these include agricultural blessings, promises of victory over enemies, abundance of children, and health, they would seem to relate to this world rather than the next.

¹⁰ This is also R. Shemuel EidelsMaharsha Chidushei Aggadot Kiddushin 39bAbout R. Shemuel Eidels (Maharsha)' understanding of R. Yaakov's position in Kiddushin, "די״ל לרבי יעקב דמודה דזכות הרבים ומעשיהם הטובים מביאים להם כל הברכות והטובות שנזכרו בתורה גם בעוה״ז וכן בהיפך בחטא הרבים אבל ר״י לא אמר כן אלא ביחיד". See also R. Elazar in Kiddushin 40bKiddushin 40bAbout the Bavli who notes that "the world is judged by the majority".

¹¹ See, for instance, Shemot 23:27, Vayikra 26:3-12 / Vayikra 26:14-21, Devarim 7:16, Devarim 11:13-17, Devarim 28:1-13, 21-25, 49-63, and Devarim 29:21-27. All of these naturally affect an entire group, not the individual.

¹² R"Y Albo points to Devarim 28:36, which speaks of "you and your king" going into exile, clearly referring to the nation at large.  See also Devarim 7:14 ("בָּרוּךְ תִּהְיֶה מִכׇּל הָעַמִּים"), Devarim 28:9 ("יְקִימְךָ י״י לוֹ לְעַם קָדוֹשׁ") and Devarim 28:52 ("וְהֵצַר לְךָ בְּכׇל שְׁעָרֶיךָ בְּכׇל אַרְצְךָ"). Other verses (Devarim 29:23-27) foretell how outsiders will view the fate of the country when the blessings / curses come to fruition, further supporting the idea that Biblical rewards are aimed at the group rather than the individual.

¹³ Thus, though the blessings of Devarim 28:3-8 are all worded in the singular ("בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה") and could easily refer only to individuals, the fact that they are followed by a discussion of how the nation will perceived after these have been bestowed, suggests that even the initial blessings of the list speak of the collective.  Similarly, though Shemot 23:26 refers to the removal of barrenness, a promise which might be understood to refer to an individual, the verse's addition of "in your land" ("לֹא תִהְיֶה מְשַׁכֵּלָה וַעֲקָרָה בְּאַרְצֶךָ") suggests that it is referring to a nation-wide phenomenon.

¹⁴ See Ibn EzraShemot Second Commentary 20:11About R. Avraham ibn Ezra, RalbagVayikra 26:4-5Devarim 5:29Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 22:7Shemot Beur HaParashah 20:11Shemot Toalot 23:25Vayikra Toalot 26:3Devarim Toalot 6:24Milchamot Hashem 4:4Milchamot Hashem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom, ShadalShemot 20:11Devarim 6:24About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto and Hoil MosheShemot 20:11About R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi .

¹⁵ At first glance, the verse appears to be speaking about an individual's observance and his personal longevity.

¹⁶ Though these exegetes only address Shemot 20, the same logic could be applied to other similar verses which also grant long or good life for the observance of specific commands, such as sending away the mother bird or dealing honestly in business. One might say that a society whose members are concerned with such matters is one which will merit to thrive

¹⁷ He understands the promise "לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ" to refer not to longevity, but a long national existence in the land of Israel.

¹⁸ It would be very difficult to suggest that all discussions of recompense in the Torah refer only to the next world as many speak of purely physical phenomena (as discussed above), all of which would seem to be irrelevant to the next world.  However, one could perhaps posit an in-between position, that all the rewards refer only to the eras of Mashiach and Revival of the Dead which are to usher one into the next world.  See R. BachyaAbout R. Bachya ibn Pakuda who writes, "והנה כל הפרשה הזאת בין ביעודים גופניים בין ביעודים שכליים הבטחה עתידה היא, כי מעולם לא נתקיימה אבל תתקיים בזמן השלמות". [In this he follows RambanBereshit 17:1Bereshit 18:19Shemot 13:16Vayikra 26:11Vayikra 26:12Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 11:13Devarim 11:13About R. Moshe b. Nachman, but Ramban suggests that the only reason the rewards are to come in the time of Mashiach is because it is then that the nation will first merit them; if the entire nation is deserving earlier the promises will come to fruition earlier.] 

¹⁹ These verses refer to honoring one's parents and sending away the mother bird.  Similar blessings are mentioned for honesty in business dealings in Devarim 25:15, and for general observance of mitzvot in Devarim 5:25, Devarim 5:29, Devarim 6:24, Devarim 12:28 and Devarim 32:47.

²⁰ None of these verses mention specific physical goods or that the blessing will apply "on the land." See R"Y Albo who explains also the promises of "וָחַי בָּהֶם" in Vayikra 18:5 to refer to eternal life.

²¹ See also R. Yonah.

²² Rambam notes that this is the reason that all yearn for the Messianic age as well.  The peace that will mark the era will enable all to engage in Torah and mitzvot, meriting all with the rewards of the next world.

²³ The same is true for sinners.  Once someone has embarked on a path of evil, he is cursed with travails, making observance more difficult and paving the way for his true punishment in the next world.

²⁴ For the Rambam, the biggest punishment is that a soul should cease to exist and lose the opportunity of joining in the spiritual good of the next world.

²⁵ See Rambam, Ralbag, Ran, R"Y Albo, and Abarbanel.

²⁶ The more righteous one is (or the more in line with the Active Intellect), the more providence one will receive. Ralbag notes that, as a result, it is possible that some people might not merit any individual providence at all.  Even a basically good person, who at times benefits from Divine providence, might not merit enough providence to cause Hashem to overturn nature on  his behalf.

²⁷ These sources do not use the language of natural order but instead refer to "מערכת הכוכבים".

²⁸ The Ran points to Rava's statement in Bavli Moed Katan 28a  that length of life and livelihood are dependent on the constellations rather than one's merits, as proven by the very different fates of Rabbah and R. Chisda despite their both being Torah giants.

²⁹ For example, if one deserves rain, but his neighbors do not, to make the individual's crops grow while the neighbors' suffer drought requires a miracle.

³⁰ R. Yaakov's position that "שְׂכַר מִצְוָה בְּהַאי עָלְמָא לֵיכָּא"  is presented in the gemara as an answer to Elisha b. Avuyah's questioning of a real life scenario, where a son who both honors his father and observes the commandment of sending away the mother bird, gets not long life as promised by the Torah, but early death!

³¹ This issue, though, might still be somewhat difficult for the Rambam who suggests that people who perform mitzvot should receive the benefits listed in Torah, even if they are not considered rewards.

³² See Theodicy – צדיק ורע לו for a full discussion.

³³ See R. Yaakov's statement in Mishnah Avot 4:16, "הָעוֹלָם הַזֶּה דּוֹמֶה לִפְרוֹזְדוֹר בִּפְנֵי הָעוֹלָם הַבָּא".

³⁴ The Rambam explains that the Messianic era will occur sometime in the future, in this world itself.  It will not be marked by the supernatural, but rather by a just leader, world peace and conditions which will enable people to learn and observe Torah with ease.
Rambam is a bit more ambiguous about the nature of the period of the Resurrection of the Dead.  He claims that it is a phenomenon limited to the righteous alone and appears to believe that souls will come back to life with a body, but then die again to return to עולם הבא, where they resume their purely spiritual existence and continue to enjoy this ultimate reward.  Given that Rambam believes that life in עולם הבא is the better existence, and that souls can enjoy it from the moment of death, it is not clear what he thinks is the purpose of the Resurrection.

³⁵ See AbarbanelShemot 20:11Vayikra 26:3Devarim 4:15Devarim 22:6Devarim 32 IntroductionNachalat Avot Mishna Avot 1:3About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel who discusses seven different approaches taken by his predecessors. Others, too, have made similar lists.  See R. Bachya, R"Y Albo and Keli Yekar (who mainly summarizes Abarbanel's list.)

³⁶ See also Shadal in his letter to Almeda: "However, for purposes of sanction in his laws, Moses announced rewards that were earthly, natural, verifiable in this life,
and such a sanction was much more effective than one that would
have been drawn from heavenly rewards, supported by faith alone." (See Daniel Klein, "A Letter to Almeda:Shadal’s Guide for the Perplexed," Hakirah 10: 225-241 for a  translation of the full letter.)

³⁷ The Kuzari adds that among the blessings promised for this world are also spiritual ones (for instance, Vayikra 26:12 promises" "וְהִתְהַלַּכְתִּי בְּתוֹכְכֶם וְהָיִיתִי לָכֶם לֵאלֹהִים"). When people see that even in this world one's soul can cling to the Divine and reap spiritual, they will know by a priori argument that in the spiritual world to come, their souls will surely be able to benefit similarly.