Reward and Punishment/2
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Reward and Punishment
Exegetical Approaches
Individuals Rewarded in this World
Individuals are compensated for their actions already in this world, and not only in the next world. This position subdivides regarding the extent of the compensation in this world:
Rewards for All Mitzvot
Individuals gets reward in both this and the next world for observance of every mitzvah.
Blessings of the Torah – This position might maintain that all the blessings and curses mentioned in the Torah, despite the collective nature of many and the occasional plural formulation, are also applicable to the individual:
- Individual inclusion in curses of Devarim – This might be supported by Devarim 29:17-20 which explicitly addresses individual sinners (פֶּן יֵשׁ בָּכֶם אִישׁ אוֹ אִשָּׁה / וְקִנְאָתוֹ בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא), stating that they, too, will suffer the curses of Devarim 28 (implying that even if the collective is being rewarded, they will individually suffer the calamities described).
- Individual observance and reward – Other verses, too, appear to actively target the individual, as they speak of retribution for individual observance or transgression of mitzvot.2 As several of these specifically mention receiving rewards "on this land"3 and others refer to physical punishment4 or prosperity,5 it seems that they refer to recompense in this world and not the next. In addition, some of these rewards (longevity and dying childless) would seem to naturally affect the individual and not the collective.
- Plural formulation – This position is not troubled by the plural formulation used in describing several of the blessings / curses6 as this does not preclude them from also referring to the individual.7
Divine providence – According to this approach, this world is run by individual providence and Hashem actively intervenes in nature so as to reward and punish as deserved. As such, though many verses promise seemingly collective retribution such as defeat in war or drought which would seem to naturally (and unavoidably) affect even the undeserving, this position would claim that Hashem intervenes to ensure that only the deserving individuals suffer when such calamities are brought, while the righteous are spared.8
Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual?
- Though these sources might agree that the ultimate reward is still the spiritual pleasures of the next world, justice might dictate that one receive physical rewards as well. Since both one's body and soul participated in the positive or negative deed, one deserves both physical and spiritual reward.
Why not reward the individual only in this world?
Are the rewards of this world natural or miraculous?
Rewards for Select Mitzvot or Individuals
Sources:Mishna Peah and Tosefta Peah,9 R. Yochanan in Bavli Shabbat,10 perhaps R. Saadia Gaon, Chovot HaLevavot, Ramban, perhaps Shadal11, perhaps R. David Zvi Hoffmann
For which mitzvot? These sources divide regarding the deeds for which one receives retribution also in this world:
- Interpersonal acts – Mishnah Peah and Bavli Shabbat mention the specific mitzvot of honoring parents, acts of kindness12 and peace-making. Rambam notes that the common denominator is that all are interpersonal mitzvot, and suggests that the Mishnah is suggesting that for these one gets reward already in this world,13 while for mitzvot between man and his Creator, one reaps reward only in the next world.14 Spiritual acts are rewarded in the spiritual sphere; non-spiritual ones are compensated for also in the physical world.15
- Severe crimes – Tosefta Peah enumerates crimes for which one is punished in both worlds, listing idolatry, murder, sexual misdeeds and gossip. These might be singled out due to their severity; punishment in just one world would not suffice.16
- Mitzvot singled out in the Torah – One might alternatively suggest that only the specific mitzvot in Torah which explicitly promise compensation for individual observance are rewarded in this world. These would include: honoring parents, sending away the mother bird, honesty in business, giving charity, or worshiping idolatry.
- For select individuals – Ramban suggests that though most people will not be compensated in this world, as the world is generally run by natural order, the totally righteous and the totally wicked who merit individual providence might get their just due in this world as well.
Why reward?
Individuals Not Rewarded in this World
Individuals do not receive true retribution in this world, getting their just desserts only in the next world.
Sources:R. Yaakov in Bavli Kiddushin and Bavli Chulin, perhaps Kuzari,17 Rambam, R. Yonah, Ralbag, Ran, R. Chasdai Crescas, Sefer HaIkkarim,18 ?Abarbanel,
Biblical blessings – This position must explain the Torah's many promises of reward and punishment, especially considering that many of these are physical in nature,19 implying that they refer to this world. If there is no individual retribution in this world, to what do these refer?
- Collective recompense – R. Crescas, R"Y Albo and Abarbanel20 respond that the retribution spoken about throughout Torah refers only to the collective and speaks of national rather than individual rewards.
- Collective nature – This is supported by the collective nature of the vast majority of the Torah's blessings and curses which speak of war, rain, famine and the like.21
- Plural formulation – As further support for this reading, R"Y Albo further points to the plural formulation of the blessings/curses of Vayikra 26,22 which suggests that a group, rather than an individual, is being addressed. He notes that other verses, despite being worded in the singular, explicitly mention or reference the nation as well.23 Even without such explicit references, however, the singular formulation need not be troubling as the nation is often addressed as an individual body.
- Larger covenantal context – The context of the blessings and curse of both Vayikra 26 and Devarim 28 is that of a national covenant, further implying that they are aimed at the nation as a whole.
- Individual observance? Some commentators24 suggest that even verses which speak of rewards for individual observance of specific mitzvot, like the promise of long life for honoring one's parents in Shemot 20:11,25 refer only to collective retribution.26 Thus Ralbag understands the promise "לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ" to refer not to personal longevity, but a long national existence in the land of Israel.27
- Rewards of next world – This approach can also suggest that certain rewards28 in Torah do indeed refer to the individual, but to blessings of the next world. Thus, R. Yaakov maintains that the promises of "לְמַעַן יִיטַב לָךְ / לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ" in Devarim 5:15 and Devarim 22:729 refer to the spiritual good and eternal life of the next world. This, however, is difficult in this specific case, as Devarim 5 explicitly states, "עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ", suggesting that the promise applies to this world. Nonetheless, the concept can be applied to other verses such as as Devarim 5:25, Devarim 6:24, and Devarim 12:28.30
- Enablers (or obstacles) – In contrast to the above, Rambam31 suggests that even individuals might in fact benefit from the promises of Torah in this world, but he maintains that these do not constitute rewards but rather enablers.32 A life free of troubles, sickness, and war will make it easier for people to observe Hashem's commandments,33 paving the way for one to earn real reward in the next world.34
Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual? One of the main philosophical motivations for this position is the belief in the primacy of spiritual rewards:
- Abarbanel notes that since observance of Hashem's commandments is essentially a spiritual act, it is only fitting that the ultimate reward be spiritual as well.
- Rambam adds that physical rewards, being meaningless to the soul and paling in comparison to spiritual rewards, are insignificant to the point of being almost worthless. Moreover, the highest pleasure is contemplation of God, and this is best achieved when the soul is not trapped and limited by a body. As such, it is impossible to be fully rewarded in this physical world; retribution must of necessity come only in the next world where the righteous merit to commune with Hashem (נֶהֱנִין מִזִּיו הַשְּׁכִינָה) and the sinners are cut off.35
Hashem's providence – This reading of reward and punishment is further influenced by these sources' understanding of Divine providence. According to many of these thinkers,36 though there is individual Divine providence, not all merit it to the same degree.37 Moreover, the world is generally run via natural law38 rather than such providence.39 In such a world, judged as it by the deeds of the majority, an individual will often not reap the appropriate recompense for his personal deeds, as doing so would necessitate intervening in nature40 (a degree of providence which many might not deserve).
Reality that appears to contradict the Torah – These sources might also be motivated by their perceptions of reality, in which individuals often do not appear to receive the rewards promised by Torah despite mitzvah observance.41 Positing that the Torah does not actually promise individual retribution in this world resolves the seeming contradiction.42 [By adding that the individual instead gets his just compensation in the next world, they also address the associated and more general problem of theodicy.43]
Is not deferred retribution unjust? One might question the justice of deferred retribution. If a person sins or acts righteously in this world, should he not get his due in this world as well? Is it fair that one needs to wait for the next world to be compensated?
- Rambam appears unperturbed by the question, assuming that the magnitude of the good of the next world renders all rewards of this world negligible. According to him, it is simply impossible to get full reward in this world, so there can be no question of injustice.
- Others might suggest that since this and the next world are really one continuum,44 there is no issue in meting out recompense in one world for deeds done in the other.
Nature of עולם הבא – This approach can take one of two approaches to the nature of the World to Come:
- According to Rambam, "עולם הבא" refers to the eternal existence of the souls of the deserving after death (and the cutting off of the undeserving). It is a purely spiritual existence where souls exist without a body, basking in Hashem's glory, with no need for food, drink, or sleep. It is not a distinct place to be created in the future after the Messianic era and Resurrection of the Dead,45 but simply how one refers to what happens to each soul immediately after death.
- One could have alternatively suggested, as do R. Saadia Gaon and Ramban, that "עולם הבא" is an actual physical place which will be created after the Messianic age and Resurrection of the Dead, in which the resurrected will live eternally. If so, the ultimate reward is for both the body and soul, and is not purely spiritual (though bodies will not need physical sustenance as they do in this world). R"Y Albo explains that since both the body and soul performed mitzvot, and neither was fully rewarded in this world, they both deserve reward in the next world.
Why isn't עולם הבא mentioned in the Torah? Considering that these sources all assume that "עולם הבא" constitutes the ultimate reward, they must explain why it is never mentioned in Torah. Many explanations have been offered;46 just a few are listed below:
- Rambam explains that Hashem omitted mention of this bliss because He does not want people to serve Him for hopes of reward or fear of punishment, but rather for the sake of Hashem Himself.
- Ibn Ezra suggests that since Torah is given to the masses, who would not be able to comprehend the secrets of the next world, Hashem speaks on their level, telling only of the physical rewards of this world.
- R"Y Albo asserts that Torah's focus is the collective rather than the individual, being a covenant between Hashem and the nation. Therefore, there is no room for discussion of the next world which refers only to the fate of the individual.
- The Kuzari and Ran47 note that if Torah only spoke of a world to come (as is promised by other religions), there would be no way to verify Hashem's providence and one would have to rely on faith alone that retribution is really to come.48 The Kuzari further adds that, for many, the physical rewards of this world are a greater incentive to observance than promises of the next world.
Is it problematic to hope for reward? Commentators divide on this point.
- Rambam claims that one should observe mitzvot for their own sake, simply because that is God's bidding, and not for hopes of reward. As mentioned, it is for this reason that true rewards are not mentioned in Torah.
- Abarbanel, in contrast, asserts that there is nothing wrong with serving Hashem in hopes of reward, as proven by the many verses in which Hashem Himself says to observe "so that it will be good for you" and the like. He does assert, however, that one should not serve with only physical rewards in mind as these are fleeting and not the true compensation, regardless.
Individuals paid back in this world – This position must explain historical cases of individuals who appear to be personally rewarded / punished by Hashem already in this world (from Kayin to David).49 It might suggest that these cases are exceptional, either because the individual's actions had ramifications for the nation as a whole (as in the case of the spies or Korach) or because the individuals were leaders who are above the system of law and not easily punished in human courts.
"וְשַׂמְתִּי אֲנִי אֶת פָּנַי בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא" – As this verse explicitly speaks of individual punishment, at first glance, it is difficult for this position:
- Next world – These sources could respond that this verse is not referring to punishment in this world, as it mentions כרת, understood by the Rambam to mean being cut off from the next world.
- Exceptional – Alternatively, this approach could explain that this case is exceptional, as it speaks of a case in which human courts fail to do their job (וְאִם הַעְלֵם יַעְלִימוּ עַם הָאָרֶץ אֶת עֵינֵיהֶם מִן הָאִישׁ הַהוּא). Only in such a case does Hashem intervene.
"וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר"
"אִישׁ אוֹ אִשָּׁה... וְרָבְצָה בּוֹ כׇּל הָאָלָה הַכְּתוּבָה בַּסֵּפֶר הַזֶּה"
Human vs. Divine punishments – Recompense in this world is meted out by humans, through the court system, while in the next world it is left to the hands of Hashem.
Purpose of rewards / punishments
Changing Rewards
Hashem's modes of providence have changed over time. Though immediate reward and punishment is manifest in the Biblical and First Temple periods, it disappeared thereafter as Hashem's initial overt providence gradually became covert.
"עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ"
