Reward and Punishment/2

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Reward and Punishment

Exegetical Approaches

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Individuals Not Rewarded in this World

Individuals do not receive true retribution in this world, getting their just desserts only in the next world.

Biblical blessings – This position must explain the Torah's many promises of reward and punishment, especially considering that many of these are physical in nature,5 implying that they refer to this world.  If there is no individual retribution in this world, to what do these refer?
  • Collective recompense – R. Crescas, R"Y Albo and Abarbanel6 respond that the retribution spoken about throughout Torah refers only to the collective and speaks of national rather than individual rewards. 
    • Collective nature – This is supported by the collective nature of the vast majority of the Torah's blessings and curses which speak of war, rain, famine and the like.7
    • Plural formulation – As further support for this reading, R"Y Albo points to the plural formulation of the blessings/curses of Vayikra 26,8 which suggests that a group, rather than an individual, is being addressed. He notes that other verses, despite being worded in the singular, explicitly mention or reference the nation as well.9 [Even without such explicit references, however, the singular formulation need not be troubling as the nation is often addressed as an individual body.]
    • Larger covenantal context – The context of the blessings and curses of both Vayikra 26 and Devarim 28 is that of a national covenant, further implying that they are aimed at the nation as a whole.
  • Rewards of next world – This approach can also suggest that certain rewards10 in Torah do indeed refer to the individual, but to blessings of the next world.  Thus, R. Yaakov maintains that the promises of "לְמַעַן יִיטַב לָךְ / לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ" in Devarim 5:15 and Devarim 22:711 refer to the spiritual good and eternal life of the next world.12
  • Enablers (or obstacles) – In contrast to the above, Rambam13 suggests that even individuals might in fact benefit from the promises of Torah in this world, but he maintains that these do not constitute rewards but rather enablers.14 A life free of troubles, sickness, and war will make it easier for people to observe Hashem's commandments,15 paving the way for one to earn real reward in the next world.16  
Evidence from Biblical history – This position must explain historical cases of individuals (from Kayin to David) who appear to be personally rewarded / punished by Hashem already in this world .17
  • Rambam would claim that these cases are not examples of punishments/ rewards but deterrents or enablers, preparing the person for his full retribution in the next world.
  • Others might suggest that these cases are exceptional, either because the individual's actions had ramifications for the nation as a whole (as in the case of the spies or Korach) or because the individuals were leaders who are above the system of law and not easily punished in human courts.18
Difficult verses – Several verses are somewhat difficult for this approach as, at first glance, they appear to speak explicitly of individual (and not collective) retribution in this world specifically:19
  • "וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר" – Contrary to this approach, this verse implies that individual punishment20 is not deferred (לֹא יְאַחֵר). It is possible, though, that the verse is not speaking of immediate punishment at all.  It simply states that in contrast to the previous verse's promise that righteous deeds will be remembered for thousands of years, a sinner's actions will not affect those generations that come after him (לֹא יְאַחֵר), but only he himself (אֶל פָּנָיו).21
  • Individual observance – Verses which speak of rewards for individual observance of specific mitzvot,22 would seem to also be speaking of individual recompense.  Several commentators23 claim that, nonetheless, even these refer only to collective retribution.24 Thus, RalbagVayikra 26:4-5Devarim 5:29Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 22:7Shemot Beur HaParashah 20:11Shemot Toalot 23:25Vayikra Toalot 26:3Devarim Toalot 6:24Milchamot Hashem 4:4Milchamot Hashem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom understands the promise "לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ" to refer not to personal longevity, but a long national existence in the land of Israel.25
  • "אִישׁ אוֹ אִשָּׁה... וְרָבְצָה בּוֹ כׇּל הָאָלָה הַכְּתוּבָה בַּסֵּפֶר הַזֶּה" – This verse implies that the punishments of Devarim 28 will apply even on the individual  level.  One could say, however, that the verse is saying only that such a sinner should not think that he will escape the collective punishment of the verses.
  • "וְשַׂמְתִּי אֲנִי אֶת פָּנַי בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא" – In this verse, Hashem promises Divine punishment to even the individual worshiper of the Molekh.  However, these sources might claim that this is not referring to punishment in this world, as it mentions כרת, understood by the Rambam to mean being cut off from the next world.26  
Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual? One of the main philosophical motivations for this position is the belief in the primacy of spiritual rewards:
Hashem's providence – This reading of reward and punishment is further influenced by these sources' understanding of Divine providence. According to many of these thinkers,28 though there is individual Divine providence, not all merit it to the same degree.29 Moreover, the world is generally run via natural law30 rather than such providence.31  In such a world, judged as it by the deeds of the majority, an individual will often reap the appropriate recompense for his personal deeds, as doing so would necessitate intervening in nature32 (a degree of providence which many might not deserve).
Today's reality – These sources might also be motivated by their perceptions of reality, in which individuals often do not appear to receive the rewards promised by Torah despite mitzvah observance.33  Positing that the Torah does not actually promise individual retribution in this world resolves the seeming contradiction.34  [By adding that the individual instead gets his just compensation in the next world, they also address the associated and more general problem of theodicy.35]
Is not deferred retribution unjust? One might question the justice of deferred retribution.  If a person sins or acts righteously in this world, should he not get his due in this world as well?  Is it fair that one needs to wait for the next world to be compensated? 
  • Rambam appears unperturbed by the question, assuming that the magnitude of the good of the next world renders all rewards of this world negligible. According to him, it is simply impossible to get full reward in this world, so there can be no question of injustice.
  • Others might suggest that since this and the next world are one continuum,36 there is no issue in meting out recompense in one world for deeds done in the other.
  • Alternatively, one could suggest that in reality justice is not totally deferred; it is just that the the two words are simply run by different judicial systems. In this world, justice is meted out by humans through the court system, while in the next world it is left to the hands of Hashem.
Nature of עולם הבא – This approach can take one of two approaches regarding the nature of the  World to Come:
  • According to Rambam, "עולם הבא" refers to the eternal existence of the souls of the deserving after death (and the cutting off of the undeserving).  It is a purely spiritual existence where souls exist without a body, basking in Hashem's glory, with no need for food, drink, or sleep.  It is not a distinct place to be created in the future after the Messianic era and Resurrection of the Dead,37 but simply how one refers to what happens to each soul immediately after death.
  • One could have alternatively suggested, as do R. Saadia Gaon and Ramban, that "עולם הבא" is an actual physical place which will be created after the Messianic age and Resurrection of the Dead, in which the resurrected will live eternally. If so, the ultimate reward is for both the body and soul, and is not purely spiritual (though bodies will not need physical sustenance as they do in this world).  R"Y Albo explains that since both the body and soul performed mitzvot, and neither was fully rewarded in this world, they both deserve reward in the next world.
Why isn't עולם הבא mentioned in the Torah? Considering that these sources all  assume that "עולם הבא" constitutes the ultimate reward, they must explain why it is never mentioned in Torah. Many explanations have been offered;38 just a few are listed below:
  • Ensure proper worship –Rambam explains that Hashem omitted mention of this bliss because He does not want people to serve Him for hopes of reward or fear of punishment, but rather for the sake of Hashem Himself.
  • Masses wouldn't understand – Ibn EzraShemot Second Commentary 20:11Shemot Second Commentary 23:25Devarim 5:15Devarim 32:39About R. Avraham ibn Ezra suggests that since Torah is given to the masses, who would not be able to comprehend the secrets of the next world, Hashem speaks on their level, telling only of the physical rewards of this world.39
  • Torah's focus is the nation – R"Y Albo asserts that Torah's focus is the collective rather than the individual, being a covenant between Hashem and the nation. Therefore, there is no room for discussion of the next world which refers only to the fate of the individual.
  • Inculcate belief in providence – The Kuzari and Ran40 note that if Torah only spoke of a world to come (as is promised by other religions), there would be no way to verify Hashem's providence and one would have to rely on faith alone that retribution is really to come.41  The Kuzari further adds that, for many, the physical rewards of this world are a greater incentive to observance than promises of the next world.
Is it problematic to hope for reward? Commentators divide on this point.
  • Rambam claims that one should observe mitzvot for their own sake, simply because that is God's bidding, and not for hopes of reward. As mentioned, it is for this reason that true rewards are not mentioned in Torah.
  • Abarbanel, in contrast, asserts that there is nothing wrong with serving Hashem in hopes of reward, as proven by the many verses in which Hashem Himself says to observe "so that it will be good for you" and the like. He does assert, however, that one should not serve with the hope of achieving physical rewards as these are fleeting and not the true compensation, regardless.
Purpose of rewards / punishments – Many of these sources might view the main goal of rewards and punishments to be simple retribution. A righteous person deserves to benefit and a wicked person deserves to suffer.  Had the main goal been motivational, it would seem that this would be better achieved if recompense was received earlier.

Individuals Rewarded in this World

Individuals receive retribution for their actions already in this world, and not only in the next world. This position subdivides regarding the extent of the compensation in this world:

Rewards for All Mitzvot

Individuals gets reward in both this and the next world for observance of every mitzvah.

Biblical blessings – This approach might suggest that all the blessings and curses mentioned in the Torah, even those formulated in the plural44 and which are collective in nature,45 are applicable on the individual level. As many of these are prefaced by formulations such as "אִם שָׁמֹעַ תִּשְׁמְעוּ אֶל מִצְוֺתַי", they would appear to apply to observance of all mitzvot. In addition, the fact that the vast majority are physical in nature would suggest that they refer to retribution in this world.
Specific mention of the individual – Several verses more explicitly target the individual for reward or punishment:
  • Devarim 29:17-20 addresses individual sinners ("יֶעְשַׁן אַף י״י וְקִנְאָתוֹ בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא"), stating that they, too, will be plagued by the curses of Devarim 28.  The verses imply that even if the collective is being rewarded and reaping blessings, the sinner will individually suffer the calamities described.  Even in this world, then, punishment is individual, and not just collective.
  • Vayikra 20:1-5 similarly singles out the individual, with Hashem promising Divine punishment to the individual worshiper of the Molekh: ""וַאֲנִי אֶתֵּן אֶת פָּנַי בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא".
  • Other verses don't explicitly mention an individual reward, but as they speak of retribution for individual observance or transgression of mitzvot, they imply that the reward, too, is for the individual.46  As several of these specifically mention blessings "on this land"47 and others refer to physical punishment48 or material  prosperity,49 it seems that these, too, refer to recompense in this world and not the next. In addition, some of these rewards (longevity and dying childless) would seem to naturally affect the individual rather than the collective.
"וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר"Devarim 7:10's statement that punishment will not be delayed (לֹא יְאַחֵר) to individual sinners further supports the idea that individuals receive retribution already in this world.
Plural formulation – This position is not troubled by the plural formulation used in describing several of the blessings and curses as this does not preclude them from referring to the individual.50
Evidence from Biblical history – The fact that many individuals in Tanakh (including Kayin, Yehuda's children, Miriam, Korach, David, Yerovam or the Judean "Man of God" ) receive immediate punishment already in this world is further proof that retribution is not deferred to the next world.
Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual? According to this approach, though the ultimate reward is the spiritual one in the next world, justice dictates that one receive physical rewards as well. Since both one's body and soul participated in the positive or negative deed,51 one deserves both physical and spiritual retribution.52
Deferred justice is unfair – This approach might be further motivated by a discomfort with the idea of deferring punishment to the next world.  One should receive retribution when and where the crime or good deed was performed ("מקום הרשע שמה המשפט") and so retribution should be given already in this world.
Divine providence – This approach divides in how it views Divine providence and how Hashem ensures that each person gets his recompense:
  • Miraculous rewards – One might suggest that this world is run by individual providence and Hashem actively intervenes in nature so as to reward and punish as deserved. As such, though many verses promise punishment which is collective in nature and which would seem to unavoidably prevent the righteous from receiving proper recompense, this position would claim that Hashem intervenes to ensure that only the wicked individuals suffer when calamities fall, while the righteous are spared and instead given their proper reward.53
  • Natural rewards – Netziv, in contrast, asserts that rewards and punishments are built into the very fabric of observance and transgression. Performing mitzvot naturally brings blessing in its wake and transgressions naturally bring calamity.54 This, though, does not mean that a righteous individual will automatically be saved from collective afflictions;55 even innocents can be caught in a general catastrophe.56 According to this logic, though all might be rewarded for their good deeds in this world, they might simultaneously get punishments that they do not deserve (and vice versa).57
Today's reality – One might question this approach from the perceived reality of today, in which it does not appear that people always get rewarded in this world. 
  • Insufficient merit – This approach might respond that the vast majority of the rewards and punishments in Torah are for general observance, which is difficult for an outsider (not privy to others' every thought and action) to gauge.58 Moreover, Torah does not even share what level of righteousness one needs to merit these rewards. It is, thus, possible that people who do not reap blessings have simply not accumulated sufficient merits.
  • Misperception of reward – In other cases, the stated reward is very general in nature (למען ייטב לך), which makes its fulfillment difficult for an outsider to perceive.59  In addition, as rewards and punishments are not always given in the immediate aftermath of one's actions,60 it is not always easy to see the correspondence between deed and retribution. The lack of perception, though, does not mean that the reward was not granted.
  • Unexplained – It is more difficult to understand cases where an individual observes a Torah command whose specific reward is enumerated in the text but is, nonetheless, not granted that blessing.61  R. D"Z HoffmannShemot 20:11Devarim 6:25About R. David Zvi Hoffmann asserts that even though this might be our experience, one must view these as an exceptional case whose reasoning is unknown.62
Is it problematic to hope for reward? These sources might suggest that there is nothing wrong with serving Hashem with hopes for even physical reward.63  After all, Hashem Himself continuously alludes to such blessings, encouraging the nation to observe His commandments "so that... ".
Purpose of Rewards/ Punishments – This approach might consider the motivational role of rewards / punishments to be just as important as the retributive function.  As such, the Torah promises immediate rewards and punishments, recognizing that recompense that affects the individual already in this world is a much stronger motivator/deterrent for behavior than promises of future blessings.

Rewards for Select Mitzvot

Though many individual deeds are rewarded or punished only in the next world, there is a select group of actions for which one receives recompense already in this world.

For which mitzvot? Mishna PeahPeah 1:1About the Mishna and Tosefta PeahPeah 1:2About the Tosefta, list both the mitzvot and sins for which one receives retribution also in this world:
  • Rewarded for interpersonal acts –  Mishna Peah notes that honoring parents, acts of kindness, peace-making and learning Torah all merit reward even in this world.67 RambamCommentary on the Mishna Peah 1:1About R. Moshe b. Maimon notes that the common denominator is that all are interpersonal mitzvot,68 and suggests that the Mishna is differentiating between these deeds, for which one gets immediate reward,69 with mitzvot between man and his Creator, for which one reaps reward only in the next world. Chovot Halevavot makes a similar distinction, but in contrast to the Mishna, he claims that the former is rewarded only in this world, and the latter only in the World to Come.70
  • Punished for severe crimes – Tosefta Peah enumerates crimes for which one is punished in both worlds, listing idolatry, murder, sexual misdeeds and gossip. The common denominator might be the severity of the crime, as three of the four constitute those commands for which one is obligated to forfeit one's life rather than transgress.71
Biblical blessings – This position assumes that all Biblical blessings refer to rewards in this world, but that some are aimed at the collective and others at the individual. 
  • Collective blessings for service of Hashem – Many blessings and curses, like those of Vayikra 26 and Devarim 28,72 speak only of general observance73 and are aimed at the collective.74 This approach would suggest that these relate mainly to "מצוות בין אדם למקום".  This is supported by the fact that the verses speak of observance in terms of "loving" or "fearing" God, and explain that punishment comes "תַּחַת אֲשֶׁר לֹא עָבַדְתָּ אֶת י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ", or because "וַהֲלַכְתֶּם עִמִּי קֶרִי",‎ all of which focus on general "עבודת ה'" and a relationship with God.75 
  • Individual blessings for interpersonal deeds – Other blessings and curses refer to observance of specific mitzvot,76 and appear to be aimed at the individual.77 The very fact that these deeds are singled out might hint to their unique status and imply that even individuals reap Divine rewards for them already in this world. Almost all of these refer to deeds between man and his fellow man (honoring parents, being honest in business, giving tithes or loans to the poor), or to severe crimes such as idolatry or sexual misdeeds.
As such, the Mishna and Tosefta's list of deeds for which the individual receives reward already in this world appears to be rooted in the Biblical text.78 Almost every item on each list79 matches one of the specific mitzvot singled out for reward by the text.80
Evidence from Biblical history – There is ample Biblical evidence of Divine punishments meted out to individuals who committed the various crimes mentioned in the Tosefta.81 However, this position must explain both the absence of a Biblical record of rewards for individuals who engaged in the positive interpersonal behavior described in the Mishna and the presence of punishments for various crimes which do not fall into the Tosefta's list (such as Korach, Datan and Aviram being punished for rebelling).
  • Absence of rewards – The absence is not troubling as interpersonal acts are not often discussed in Torah, and even when they are, there is no reason to expect that rewards need be mentioned.82 
  • Record of punishments –This position might explain that there are always exceptional cases of punishment, and some will receive retribution in this world for crimes other than the severe ones mentioned, but that does not contradict the general rule that as a whole, people only receive retribution for the select deeds discussed above.
Why differentiate? This approach must explain why there should be a difference in reward for different mitzvot:
"מְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר" – This approach might suggest that the immediate punishment mentioned in this verse refers specifically to those who have committed murder, worshiped idolatry or engaged in forbidden sexual relations.  Punishment for other crimes, though, might be deferred and dispensed only in the next world.
Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual? This position does not view spiritual rewards/punishments as necessarily being of higher value than physical ones.  Instead, each reward must match the deed performed; in some cases one type of reward is appropriate and in others a different one is.
Divine providence – These sources might suggest that there is individual Divine providence in this world, as Hashem does reward individuals for select mitzvot.
Deferred justice – This position sees no injustice in deferring spiritual rewards to the next world, as these simply cannot be provided in this world.
Today's reality – As the Torah does not claim that all individual deeds will be rewarded in this world, the fact that blessings are not always evident is less troubling.  This position would still have to explain the absence of specific expected rewards such as long life for honoring parents.  It might suggest, like R. D"Z Hoffmann, that such instances should be seen as aberrations and not the norm.
Is it problematic to hope for reward?
Variation of this approach

For Select Individuals

Changing Rewards

Hashem's modes of providence have changed over time.  Though immediate reward and punishment is manifest in the Biblical and First Temple periods, it disappeared thereafter as Hashem's initial overt providence gradually became covert. As such, today, there might no longer be even collective reward in this world.

Biblical blessings – This position assumes that Biblical blessings relate to both the collective and the individual. Some blessings, such as many of those listed in Vayikra 26 and Devarim 28 which speak of national goods (rain, plague, peace, or exile) might be aimed at the collective, while others, such as promises of longevity or curses of barrenness, might be aimed at the individual. All, of these, though, relate only to periods when the nation enjoys a supernatural existence.
Divine providence
The Biblical record – Throughout the period of Tanakh, there is evidence of both individual and collective retribution. Moreover, in many cases, these are both immediate and miraculous.84 
  • In Torah, individuals such as the spies, Korach, Datan and Aviram, and Miryam are miraculously punished for their crimes right after they are committed. In prophetic books, too, kings such as Shaul, David, Yerovam, Uzziyahu or Achav are punished in this world for their crimes, be they against Hashem or man. Prophetic rebukes often accompany the retribution, ensuring that the sinner sees the causal relationship, and attributes calamities to sin.
  • The idea of immediate retribution is even more evident on the collective level. In prophetic works, almost every national catastrophe, from defeat in war,85 famine or drought,86 to the ultimate exile,87 is explained in terms of sin and punishment. This is highlighted in Sefer Shofetim where the book's cycle of sin and punishment hinges on the idea that when the nation turns to idolatry they are punished with enemies, but when they turn back to Hashem, they merit salvation.
The post Biblical record
"מְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר" – This verse, which promises immediate retribution, is true of the Biblical and First Temple periods, where we see people not only getting their just desserts, but often being paid for their crimes almost immediately after committing them.
Why? This position might offer several possible explanations for Hashem's changing mode of providence:
  • Loss of merit – In both Vayikra and Devarim, Hashem warns the nation that sometimes sin will bring in its wake the hiding of Hashem's providence.  In Vayikra 26, Hashem repeatedly warns the nation, "וְאִם בְּזֹאת לֹא תִשְׁמְעוּ לִי וַהֲלַכְתֶּם עִמִּי בְּקֶרִי. .וְהָלַכְתִּי עִמָּכֶם בַּחֲמַת קֶרִי".‎88 In Devarim, Hashem says even more explicitly, "וְאָנֹכִי הַסְתֵּר אַסְתִּיר פָּנַי בַּיּוֹם הַהוּא".  The many sins that caused the destruction of the Beit HaMikdash might have simultaneously ushered in a period of "הסתר פנים", in which Hashem's earlier providence is no longer manifest, and rewards and punishment are no longer meted out in this world.
  • People's initiative – The Netizv suggests that the initial switch from total providence to  a more natural existence was initiated by the people themselves. In the wilderness, Hashem's close and constant presence meant that as soon as the nation sinned, they felt God's wrath.  This, though, was too much for the people to handle, and so o ftheir own accord, they requested to be guided in a more natural way, ass seen in thier desire to send spies (. 89. w ere punished, one might suggest that Hashem intentionally weaned the nation from the miraculous existence of the wilderness period to a more natural existence in the land.
  • Loss of collective – In addition, the exile naturally led to the breakdown of the collective, making collective retribution impossible.
Does Hashem change? Some commentators note evidence of similar movement away from total Divine providence already within the Biblical period:
  • After the sin of the calf
  • After the sin of the spies – Netziv suggests that one can see a switch in Hashem's providence from the period of the Wilderness to the period of the the settelmet in Isarel.  In the wilderness period,
Today's reality – This position is motivated by a reality in which God's hand is not always recognizable, miracles are hiddena nd reward and punishment are not immediate.
"עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ"
Role of prophecy – It i spossible that wth Hashem's changing