Reward and Punishment/2

Reward and Punishment

Exegetical Approaches

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Individuals Not Rewarded in this World

Individuals do not receive true retribution in this world, getting their just desserts only in the next world.

Sources:R. Yaakov in Bavli KiddushinKiddushin 39bKiddushin 40bAbout the Bavli and Bavli ChulinChulin 142aAbout the Bavli, ¹ Kuzari3:19About R. Yehuda HaLevi,² RambamCommentary on the Mishna Peah 1:1Commentary on the Mishna Sanhedrin 10:1Commentary on the Mishna Avot 1:3Hilkhot Teshuvah 8:1-3Hilkhot Teshuvah 8:5-8Hilkhot Teshuvah 9Hilkhot Teshuvah 10:1-2Hilkhot Teshuvah 10:4-5Moreh Nevukhim 3:18Moreh Nevukhim 3:27Moreh Nevukhim 3:28Moreh Nevukhim 3:51About R. Moshe b. Maimon, R. YonahAvot 4:2About R. Yonah b. Avraham Gerondi, RalbagVayikra 26:4-5Devarim 5:29Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 22:7Shemot Beur HaParashah 20:11Shemot Toalot 23:25Vayikra Toalot 26:3Devarim Toalot 6:24Milchamot Hashem 4:4Milchamot Hashem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom, RanDerashot HaRan 8About R. Nissim Gerondi, R. Chasdai CrescasOr Hashem 2:2:4About R. Chasdai Crescas, Sefer HaIkkarim4:104:114:294:304:334:394:40About R. Yosef Albo,³ AbarbanelShemot 20:11Vayikra 26:3Devarim 4:15Devarim 22:6Devarim 32 IntroductionNachalat Avot Mishna Avot 1:3About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel,⁴

Biblical blessings – This position must explain the Torah's many promises of reward and punishment, especially considering that many of these are physical in nature,⁵ implying that they refer to this world.  If there is no individual retribution in this world, to what do these refer?

• Collective recompense – R. Crescas, R"Y Albo and Abarbanel⁶ respond that the retribution spoken about throughout Torah refers only to the collective and speaks of national rather than individual rewards. 
• Collective nature – This is supported by the collective nature of the vast majority of the Torah's blessings and curses which speak of war, rain, famine and the like.⁷
• Plural formulation – As further support for this reading, R"Y Albo points to the plural formulation of the blessings/curses of Vayikra 26,⁸ which suggests that a group, rather than an individual, is being addressed. He notes that other verses, despite being worded in the singular, explicitly mention or reference the nation as well.⁹ [Even without such explicit references, however, the singular formulation need not be troubling as the nation is often addressed as an individual body.]
• Larger covenantal context – The context of the blessings and curses of both Vayikra 26 and Devarim 28 is that of a national covenant, further implying that they are aimed at the nation as a whole.
• Rewards of next world – This approach can also suggest that certain rewards¹⁰ in Torah do indeed refer to the individual, but to blessings of the next world.  Thus, R. Yaakov maintains that the promises of "לְמַעַן יִיטַב לָךְ / לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ" in Devarim 5:15 and Devarim 22:7¹¹ refer to the spiritual good and eternal life of the next world.¹²
• Enablers (or obstacles) – In contrast to the above, Rambam¹³ suggests that even individuals might in fact benefit from the promises of Torah in this world, but he maintains that these do not constitute rewards but rather enablers.¹⁴ A life free of troubles, sickness, and war will make it easier for people to observe Hashem's commandments,¹⁵ paving the way for one to earn real reward in the next world.¹⁶  

Evidence from Biblical history – This position must explain historical cases of individuals (from Kayin to David) who appear to be personally rewarded / punished by Hashem already in this world .¹⁷

• Rambam would claim that these cases are not examples of punishments/ rewards but deterrents or enablers, preparing the person for his full retribution in the next world.
• Others might suggest that these cases are exceptional, either because the individual's actions had ramifications for the nation as a whole (as in the case of the spies or Korach) or because the individuals were leaders who are above the system of law and not easily punished in human courts.¹⁸

Difficult verses – Several verses are somewhat difficult for this approach as, at first glance, they appear to speak explicitly of individual (and not collective) retribution in this world specifically:¹⁹

• "וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר" – Contrary to this approach, this verse implies that individual punishment²⁰ is not deferred (לֹא יְאַחֵר). It is possible, though, that the verse is not speaking of immediate punishment at all.  It simply states that in contrast to the previous verse's promise that righteous deeds will be remembered for thousands of years, a sinner's actions will not affect those generations that come after him (לֹא יְאַחֵר), but only he himself (אֶל פָּנָיו).²¹
• Individual observance – Verses which speak of rewards for individual observance of specific mitzvot,²² would seem to also be speaking of individual recompense.  Several commentators²³ claim that, nonetheless, even these refer only to collective retribution.²⁴ Thus, RalbagVayikra 26:4-5Devarim 5:29Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 22:7Shemot Beur HaParashah 20:11Shemot Toalot 23:25Vayikra Toalot 26:3Devarim Toalot 6:24Milchamot Hashem 4:4Milchamot Hashem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom understands the promise "לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ" to refer not to personal longevity, but a long national existence in the land of Israel.²⁵
• "אִישׁ אוֹ אִשָּׁה... וְרָבְצָה בּוֹ כׇּל הָאָלָה הַכְּתוּבָה בַּסֵּפֶר הַזֶּה" – This verse implies that the punishments of Devarim 28 will apply even on the individual  level.  One could say, however, that the verse is saying only that such a sinner should not think that he will escape the collective punishment of the verses.
• "וְשַׂמְתִּי אֲנִי אֶת פָּנַי בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא" – In this verse, Hashem promises Divine punishment to even the individual worshiper of the Molekh.  However, these sources might claim that this is not referring to punishment in this world, as it mentions כרת, understood by the Rambam to mean being cut off from the next world.²⁶  

Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual? One of the main philosophical motivations for this position is the belief in the primacy of spiritual rewards:

• AbarbanelShemot 20:11Vayikra 26:3Devarim 4:15Devarim 22:6Devarim 32 IntroductionNachalat Avot Mishna Avot 1:3About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel notes that since observance of Hashem's commandments is essentially a spiritual act, it is only fitting that the ultimate reward be spiritual as well.
• RambamCommentary on the Mishna Peah 1:1Commentary on the Mishna Sanhedrin 10:1Commentary on the Mishna Avot 1:3Hilkhot Teshuvah 8:1-3Hilkhot Teshuvah 8:5-8Hilkhot Teshuvah 9Hilkhot Teshuvah 10:1-2Hilkhot Teshuvah 10:4-5Moreh Nevukhim 3:18Moreh Nevukhim 3:27Moreh Nevukhim 3:28Moreh Nevukhim 3:51About R. Moshe b. Maimon adds that physical rewards, being meaningless to the soul and paling in comparison to spiritual rewards, are insignificant to the point of being almost worthless.  Moreover, the highest pleasure is contemplation of God, and this is best achieved when the soul is not trapped and limited by a body.  As such, it is impossible to be fully rewarded in this physical world; retribution must of necessity come only in the next world where the righteous merit to commune with Hashem (נֶהֱנִין מִזִּיו הַשְּׁכִינָה) and the sinners are cut off.²⁷

Hashem's providence – This reading of reward and punishment is further influenced by these sources' understanding of Divine providence. According to many of these thinkers,²⁸ though there is individual Divine providence, not all merit it to the same degree.²⁹ Moreover, the world is generally run via natural law³⁰ rather than such providence.³¹  In such a world, judged as it by the deeds of the majority, an individual will often reap the appropriate recompense for his personal deeds, as doing so would necessitate intervening in nature³² (a degree of providence which many might not deserve).

Today's reality – These sources might also be motivated by their perceptions of reality, in which individuals often do not appear to receive the rewards promised by Torah despite mitzvah observance.³³  Positing that the Torah does not actually promise individual retribution in this world resolves the seeming contradiction.³⁴  [By adding that the individual instead gets his just compensation in the next world, they also address the associated and more general problem of theodicy.³⁵]

Is not deferred retribution unjust? One might question the justice of deferred retribution.  If a person sins or acts righteously in this world, should he not get his due in this world as well?  Is it fair that one needs to wait for the next world to be compensated? 

• Rambam appears unperturbed by the question, assuming that the magnitude of the good of the next world renders all rewards of this world negligible. According to him, it is simply impossible to get full reward in this world, so there can be no question of injustice.
• Others might suggest that since this and the next world are one continuum,³⁶ there is no issue in meting out recompense in one world for deeds done in the other.
• Alternatively, one could suggest that in reality justice is not totally deferred; it is just that the the two words are simply run by different judicial systems. In this world, justice is meted out by humans through the court system, while in the next world it is left to the hands of Hashem.

Nature of עולם הבא – This approach can take one of two approaches regarding the nature of the  World to Come:

• According to Rambam, "עולם הבא" refers to the eternal existence of the souls of the deserving after death (and the cutting off of the undeserving).  It is a purely spiritual existence where souls exist without a body, basking in Hashem's glory, with no need for food, drink, or sleep.  It is not a distinct place to be created in the future after the Messianic era and Resurrection of the Dead,³⁷ but simply how one refers to what happens to each soul immediately after death.
• One could have alternatively suggested, as do R. Saadia Gaon and Ramban, that "עולם הבא" is an actual physical place which will be created after the Messianic age and Resurrection of the Dead, in which the resurrected will live eternally. If so, the ultimate reward is for both the body and soul, and is not purely spiritual (though bodies will not need physical sustenance as they do in this world).  R"Y Albo explains that since both the body and soul performed mitzvot, and neither was fully rewarded in this world, they both deserve reward in the next world.

Why isn't עולם הבא mentioned in the Torah? Considering that these sources all  assume that "עולם הבא" constitutes the ultimate reward, they must explain why it is never mentioned in Torah. Many explanations have been offered;³⁸ just a few are listed below:

• Ensure proper worship –Rambam explains that Hashem omitted mention of this bliss because He does not want people to serve Him for hopes of reward or fear of punishment, but rather for the sake of Hashem Himself.
• Masses wouldn't understand – Ibn EzraShemot Second Commentary 20:11Shemot Second Commentary 23:25Devarim 5:15Devarim 32:39About R. Avraham ibn Ezra suggests that since Torah is given to the masses, who would not be able to comprehend the secrets of the next world, Hashem speaks on their level, telling only of the physical rewards of this world.³⁹
• Torah's focus is the nation – R"Y Albo asserts that Torah's focus is the collective rather than the individual, being a covenant between Hashem and the nation. Therefore, there is no room for discussion of the next world which refers only to the fate of the individual.
• Inculcate belief in providence – The Kuzari and Ran⁴⁰ note that if Torah only spoke of a world to come (as is promised by other religions), there would be no way to verify Hashem's providence and one would have to rely on faith alone that retribution is really to come.⁴¹  The Kuzari further adds that, for many, the physical rewards of this world are a greater incentive to observance than promises of the next world.

Is it problematic to hope for reward? Commentators divide on this point.

• Rambam claims that one should observe mitzvot for their own sake, simply because that is God's bidding, and not for hopes of reward. As mentioned, it is for this reason that true rewards are not mentioned in Torah.
• Abarbanel, in contrast, asserts that there is nothing wrong with serving Hashem in hopes of reward, as proven by the many verses in which Hashem Himself says to observe "so that it will be good for you" and the like. He does assert, however, that one should not serve with the hope of achieving physical rewards as these are fleeting and not the true compensation, regardless.

Purpose of rewards / punishments – Many of these sources might view the main goal of rewards and punishments to be simple retribution. A righteous person deserves to benefit and a wicked person deserves to suffer.  Had the main goal been motivational, it would seem that this would be better achieved if recompense was received earlier.

Individuals Rewarded in this World

Individuals receive retribution for their actions already in this world, and not only in the next world. This position subdivides regarding the extent of the compensation in this world:

Rewards for All Mitzvot

Individuals gets reward in both this and the next world for observance of every mitzvah.

Sources:perhaps one opinion in Bavli KiddushinKiddushin 39bAbout the Bavli,⁴² NetzivVayikra 26:3Devarim 5:29Devarim 6:24Devarim 22:7About R. Naftali Tzvi Yehuda Berlin,⁴³

Biblical blessings – This approach might suggest that all the blessings and curses mentioned in the Torah, even those formulated in the plural⁴⁴ and which are collective in nature,⁴⁵ are applicable on the individual level. As many of these are prefaced by formulations such as "אִם שָׁמֹעַ תִּשְׁמְעוּ אֶל מִצְוֺתַי", they would appear to apply to observance of all mitzvot. In addition, the fact that the vast majority are physical in nature would suggest that they refer to retribution in this world.

Specific mention of the individual – Several verses more explicitly target the individual for reward or punishment:

• Devarim 29:17-20 addresses individual sinners ("יֶעְשַׁן אַף י״י וְקִנְאָתוֹ בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא"), stating that they, too, will be plagued by the curses of Devarim 28.  The verses imply that even if the collective is being rewarded and reaping blessings, the sinner will individually suffer the calamities described.  Even in this world, then, punishment is individual, and not just collective.
• Vayikra 20:1-5 similarly singles out the individual, with Hashem promising Divine punishment to the individual worshiper of the Molekh: ""וַאֲנִי אֶתֵּן אֶת פָּנַי בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא".
• Other verses don't explicitly mention an individual reward, but as they speak of retribution for individual observance or transgression of mitzvot, they imply that the reward, too, is for the individual.⁴⁶  As several of these specifically mention blessings "on this land"⁴⁷ and others refer to physical punishment⁴⁸ or material  prosperity,⁴⁹ it seems that these, too, refer to recompense in this world and not the next. In addition, some of these rewards (longevity and dying childless) would seem to naturally affect the individual rather than the collective.

"וּמְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר" – Devarim 7:10's statement that punishment will not be delayed (לֹא יְאַחֵר) to individual sinners further supports the idea that individuals receive retribution already in this world.

Plural formulation – This position is not troubled by the plural formulation used in describing several of the blessings and curses as this does not preclude them from referring to the individual.⁵⁰

Evidence from Biblical history – The fact that many individuals in Tanakh (including Kayin, Yehuda's children, Miriam, Korach, David, Yerovam or the Judean "Man of God" ) receive immediate punishment already in this world is further proof that retribution is not deferred to the next world.

Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual? According to this approach, though the ultimate reward is the spiritual one in the next world, justice dictates that one receive physical rewards as well. Since both one's body and soul participated in the positive or negative deed,⁵¹ one deserves both physical and spiritual retribution.⁵²

Deferred justice is unfair – This approach might be further motivated by a discomfort with the idea of deferring punishment to the next world.  One should receive retribution when and where the crime or good deed was performed ("מקום הרשע שמה המשפט") and so retribution should be given already in this world.

Divine providence – This approach divides in how it views Divine providence and how Hashem ensures that each person gets his recompense:

• Miraculous rewards – One might suggest that this world is run by individual providence and Hashem actively intervenes in nature so as to reward and punish as deserved. As such, though many verses promise punishment which is collective in nature and which would seem to unavoidably prevent the righteous from receiving proper recompense, this position would claim that Hashem intervenes to ensure that only the wicked individuals suffer when calamities fall, while the righteous are spared and instead given their proper reward.⁵³
• Natural rewards – Netziv, in contrast, asserts that rewards and punishments are built into the very fabric of observance and transgression. Performing mitzvot naturally brings blessing in its wake and transgressions naturally bring calamity.⁵⁴ This, though, does not mean that a righteous individual will automatically be saved from collective afflictions;⁵⁵ even innocents can be caught in a general catastrophe.⁵⁶ According to this logic, though all might be rewarded for their good deeds in this world, they might simultaneously get punishments that they do not deserve (and vice versa).⁵⁷

Today's reality – One might question this approach from the perceived reality of today, in which it does not appear that people always get rewarded in this world. 

• Insufficient merit – This approach might respond that the vast majority of the rewards and punishments in Torah are for general observance, which is difficult for an outsider (not privy to others' every thought and action) to gauge.⁵⁸ Moreover, Torah does not even share what level of righteousness one needs to merit these rewards. It is, thus, possible that people who do not reap blessings have simply not accumulated sufficient merits.
• Misperception of reward – In other cases, the stated reward is very general in nature (למען ייטב לך), which makes its fulfillment difficult for an outsider to perceive.⁵⁹  In addition, as rewards and punishments are not always given in the immediate aftermath of one's actions,⁶⁰ it is not always easy to see the correspondence between deed and retribution. The lack of perception, though, does not mean that the reward was not granted.
• Unexplained – It is more difficult to understand cases where an individual observes a Torah command whose specific reward is enumerated in the text but is, nonetheless, not granted that blessing.⁶¹  R. D"Z HoffmannShemot 20:11Devarim 6:25About R. David Zvi Hoffmann asserts that even though this might be our experience, one must view these as an exceptional case whose reasoning is unknown.⁶²

Is it problematic to hope for reward? These sources might suggest that there is nothing wrong with serving Hashem with hopes for even physical reward.⁶³  After all, Hashem Himself continuously alludes to such blessings, encouraging the nation to observe His commandments "so that... ".

Purpose of Rewards/ Punishments – This approach might consider the motivational role of rewards / punishments to be just as important as the retributive function.  As such, the Torah promises immediate rewards and punishments, recognizing that recompense that affects the individual already in this world is a much stronger motivator/deterrent for behavior than promises of future blessings.

Rewards for Select Mitzvot

Though many individual deeds are rewarded or punished only in the next world, there is a select group of actions for which one receives recompense already in this world.

Sources:Mishna PeahPeah 1:1About the Mishna and Tosefta PeahPeah 1:2About the Tosefta,⁶⁴ R. Yochanan in Bavli Shabbat,⁶⁵ perhaps R. Saadia GaonCommentary Bereshit 6:7HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:1HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 6:5HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 8:2HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9:1HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9:2About R. Saadia Gaon, Chovot HaLevavot4:4About R. Bachya ibn Pakuda, RambanBereshit 17:1Bereshit 18:19Shemot 6:2Shemot 13:16Vayikra 18:4-5Vayikra 26:11Vayikra 26:12Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 11:13Devarim 11:13About R. Moshe b. Nachman, perhaps ShadalDevarim 6:24Yeshayahu IntroductionAbout R. Shemuel David Luzzatto,⁶⁶ perhaps R. David Zvi HoffmannShemot 20:11Devarim 6:25About R. David Zvi Hoffmann

For which mitzvot? Mishna PeahPeah 1:1About the Mishna and Tosefta PeahPeah 1:2About the Tosefta, list both the mitzvot and sins for which one receives retribution also in this world:

• Rewarded for interpersonal acts –  Mishna Peah notes that honoring parents, acts of kindness, peace-making and learning Torah all merit reward even in this world.⁶⁷ RambamCommentary on the Mishna Peah 1:1About R. Moshe b. Maimon notes that the common denominator is that all are interpersonal mitzvot,⁶⁸ and suggests that the Mishna is differentiating between these deeds, for which one gets immediate reward,⁶⁹ with mitzvot between man and his Creator, for which one reaps reward only in the next world. Chovot Halevavot makes a similar distinction, but in contrast to the Mishna, he claims that the former is rewarded only in this world, and the latter only in the World to Come.⁷⁰
• Punished for severe crimes – Tosefta Peah enumerates crimes for which one is punished in both worlds, listing idolatry, murder, sexual misdeeds and gossip. The common denominator might be the severity of the crime, as three of the four constitute those commands for which one is obligated to forfeit one's life rather than transgress.⁷¹

Biblical blessings – This position assumes that all Biblical blessings refer to rewards in this world, but that some are aimed at the collective and others at the individual. 

• Collective blessings for service of Hashem – Many blessings and curses, like those of Vayikra 26 and Devarim 28,⁷² speak only of general observance⁷³ and are aimed at the collective.⁷⁴ This approach would suggest that these relate mainly to "מצוות בין אדם למקום".  This is supported by the fact that the verses speak of observance in terms of "loving" or "fearing" God, and explain that punishment comes "תַּחַת אֲשֶׁר לֹא עָבַדְתָּ אֶת י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ", or because "וַהֲלַכְתֶּם עִמִּי קֶרִי",‎ all of which focus on general "עבודת ה'" and a relationship with God.⁷⁵ 
• Individual blessings for interpersonal deeds – Other blessings and curses refer to observance of specific mitzvot,⁷⁶ and appear to be aimed at the individual.⁷⁷ The very fact that these deeds are singled out might hint to their unique status and imply that even individuals reap Divine rewards for them already in this world. Almost all of these refer to deeds between man and his fellow man (honoring parents, being honest in business, giving tithes or loans to the poor), or to severe crimes such as idolatry or sexual misdeeds.

As such, the Mishna and Tosefta's list of deeds for which the individual receives reward already in this world appears to be rooted in the Biblical text.⁷⁸ Almost every item on each list⁷⁹ matches one of the specific mitzvot singled out for reward by the text.⁸⁰

Evidence from Biblical history – There is ample Biblical evidence of Divine punishments meted out to individuals who committed the various crimes mentioned in the Tosefta.⁸¹ However, this position must explain both the absence of a Biblical record of rewards for individuals who engaged in the positive interpersonal behavior described in the Mishna and the presence of punishments for various crimes which do not fall into the Tosefta's list (such as Korach, Datan and Aviram being punished for rebelling).

• Absence of rewards – The absence is not troubling as interpersonal acts are not often discussed in Torah, and even when they are, there is no reason to expect that rewards need be mentioned.⁸² 
• Record of punishments –This position might explain that there are always exceptional cases of punishment, and some will receive retribution in this world for crimes other than the severe ones mentioned, but that does not contradict the general rule that as a whole, people only receive retribution for the select deeds discussed above.

Why differentiate? This approach must explain why there should be a difference in reward for different mitzvot:

• RambamCommentary on the Mishna Peah 1:1Moreh Nevukhim 3:18Moreh Nevukhim 3:28Moreh Nevukhim 3:51About R. Moshe b. Maimon explains that observance of law between man and His Creator is essentially a spiritual acts and is thus rewarded in the spiritual sphere. It is appropriate, though, that non-spiritual acts (such as מצוות בין אדם לחברו) receive compensation also in the physical world.⁸³
• Crimes of the severity of murder or idolatry might be punished in both worlds due simply to the weight of the crime.

"מְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר" – This approach might suggest that the immediate punishment mentioned in this verse refers specifically to those who have committed murder, worshiped idolatry or engaged in forbidden sexual relations.  Punishment for other crimes, though, might be deferred and dispensed only in the next world.

Ultimate reward: physical or spiritual? This position does not view spiritual rewards/punishments as necessarily being of higher value than physical ones.  Instead, each reward must match the deed performed; in some cases one type of reward is appropriate and in others a different one is.

Divine providence – These sources might suggest that there is individual Divine providence in this world, as Hashem does reward individuals for select mitzvot.

Deferred justice – This position sees no injustice in deferring spiritual rewards to the next world, as these simply cannot be provided in this world.

Today's reality – As the Torah does not claim that all individual deeds will be rewarded in this world, the fact that blessings are not always evident is less troubling.  This position would still have to explain the absence of specific expected rewards such as long life for honoring parents.  It might suggest, like R. D"Z Hoffmann, that such instances should be seen as aberrations and not the norm.

Is it problematic to hope for reward?

Variation of this approach

For Select Individuals

Retribution is given in this world only to either the totally righteous or the totally wicked.

Sources:RambanBereshit 17:1Bereshit 18:19Shemot 6:2Shemot 13:16Vayikra 18:4-5Vayikra 26:11Vayikra 26:12Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 11:13Devarim 11:13About R. Moshe b. Nachman

Changing Rewards

Hashem's modes of providence have changed over time.  Though immediate reward and punishment is manifest from the Biblical through First Temple periods, it disappeared thereafter as Hashem's initial overt providence gradually became covert. As such, today, there might no longer be even collective reward in this world.

Biblical blessings – This position assumes that Biblical blessings relate to both the collective and the individual.⁸⁴  All of these, though, relate only to periods when the nation enjoys a supernatural existence and Hashem's providence is ever present.

The Biblical record – Throughout the period of Tanakh, there is evidence of both individual and collective retribution. Moreover, in many cases, these are both immediate and miraculous.⁸⁵ 

• Individual – In Torah, individuals such as the spies, Korach, Datan and Aviram, and Miryam are miraculously punished for their crimes right after they are committed. In prophetic books, too, kings such as Shaul, David, Yerovam, or Uzziyahu are punished soon after sinning. Prophetic rebukes often accompany the retribution, ensuring that the sinner sees the causal relationship and attributes calamities to sin.
• Collective – This worldly retribution might be even more evident on the collective level. In prophetic works, almost every national catastrophe, from defeat in war,⁸⁶ to famine or drought⁸⁷ and the ultimate exile,⁸⁸ is explained in terms of sin and punishment. This is highlighted in Sefer Shofetim where the book's cycle of sin and punishment hinges on the idea that when the nation turns to idolatry they are punished with enemies, but when they turn back to Hashem, they merit salvation.

The post Biblical record – In the post Biblical period, in contrast, God's hand is not nearly as recognizable, miracles are hidden, and there is no immediate retribution. It seems that even where the collective is righteous, they not only are not granted rewards, but sometimes suffer terribly, with entire communities being martyred for their very observance ("קהלות הקדש שמסרו נפשם על קדושת השם")!  This reality is one of the main motivations for this position.

Explaining the change – This position might offer several possible explanations for Hashem's changing mode of providence:

• Loss of merit – In Torah, Hashem warns the nation that sometimes sin will bring in its wake the hiding of Hashem's providence.  In Vayikra 26, Hashem states , "וְאִם בְּזֹאת לֹא תִשְׁמְעוּ לִי וַהֲלַכְתֶּם עִמִּי בְּקֶרִי וְהָלַכְתִּי עִמָּכֶם בַּחֲמַת קֶרִי",‎⁸⁹ and in Devarim 29, He says even more explicitly, "וְאָנֹכִי הַסְתֵּר אַסְתִּיר פָּנַי בַּיּוֹם הַהוּא".  As such, it is possible that the sins that caused the destruction of the Beit HaMikdash might have simultaneously ushered in a period of "הסתר פנים".‎⁹⁰ 
• Loss of collective – In addition, the exile naturally led to the breakdown of the collective, making collective retribution impossible.  As the majority of the Torah's blessings are aimed at the nation, many are simply no longer applicable.
• Loss of land
• People's initiative – The Netziv, in contrast, suggests that the initial switch from total providence to a more natural existence was initiated by the people themselves.⁹¹ Hashem's close and constant presence in the wilderness period meant that as soon as the nation sinned, they felt God's wrath.  This, though, was too much for the people to handle, and so of their own accord, they requested Hashem's distance and to be guided in a more natural way.⁹²  According to Netziv, this switch began in the 40th year.⁹³  This approach might suggest that the process was gradual and only culminated at the end of the first Temple period.⁹⁴

Divine presence – This position views rewards and punishment as being intrinsically related to Hashem's presence.  The more constant and close Hashem's presence is, the more likely that His wrath (or beneficence) will be felt instantaneously. Thus, in the wilderness period, when Hashem's shekhinah resided in the midst of the nation, sin often resulted in immediate retribution.  When Hashem hides His face, reward and punishment is absent.

Stages of changing providence – There might be evidence of Hashem's changing modes of providence elswhere in tanakh as well
The Netziv suggests that the initial switch from total providence to a more natural existence was initiated by the people themselves, already with the sin of the spies. Hashem's close and constant presence in the wilderness period meant that as soon as the nation sinned, they felt God's wrath.  This, though, was too much for the people to handle, and so of their own accord, they requested Hashem's distance and to be guided in a more natural way (hence, the request for spies).  Hashem leads the people as they want , with the switch to a more natural existence beginning in the 40th year.  This approach might suggest that the process was gradual and only culminated at the end of the first Temple period.

Changing providence: sin of the Calf

• M. Leibtag posits that modes of Divine retribution began to change already after the sin of the Calf. Recognizing that His direct presence (and accompanying immediate retribution) was potentially disastrous for the nation, Hashem decided to remove His presence from their midst. Moshe, uncomfortable with the solution, suggests a compromise, that Hashem mix justice with mercy and allow for non-immediate retribution.  The 13 attributes attest to this new type of providence, one in which Hashem is "ארך אפים" and "נוצר חסד". This, though, is a mixed blessing.  Holding judgement at bay allows for repentance and reconciliation, but holding back rewards simultanously allows for "צדיק ורע לו".

Does Hashem change? One might question whether it is not problematic to suggest that Hashem's modes of guidance change over time.

• If one views the removal of Divine providence, and subsequent lack of retribution, as punishment, then the issue is averted as this does not constitute a change in behavior, but a fulfillment of an earlier curse.
• If, on the other hand, this is a response to the fears or inadequacies of the people, one might suggest that this is not the only case in which Hashem "adapts" to meet the people where they are, even when it means becoming more distant:
• See Rashbam and Ibn Ezra in The Decalogue: Direct From Hashem or Via Moshe who suggest that the original plan was that the nation hear all 613 commandments straight from Hashem, but due to the people's fear, Hashem had Moshe act as intermediary.
• See Seforno in who claims that were it not for the sin of the calf, Hashem's preference was that His presence could be accessed anywhere and by anyone (and not be limited to worship in the Tabernacle).
• M. Leibtag posits that the 13 attributes describing Hashem in the aftermath of the sin of the Calf mark a new attitude towards the people. As mentioned above, in the wilderness Hashem's closeness meant immediate retribution.  Recognizing that this could be disastrous for the stiff necked people. Hashem tells Moshe that He will no longer accompany them into Israel.  Moshe prays for a compromise,⁹⁵ that Hashem mitigate his "justice" with "mercy", and allow for non-immediate retribution, "ארך אפים"and "נוצר חסד".  Holding judgement at bay allows for repentance. 

"מְשַׁלֵּם לְשֹׂנְאָיו אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ לֹא יְאַחֵר" – This verse, which promises immediate retribution, is true of the Biblical and First Temple periods, where we see people not only getting their just desserts, but often being paid for their crimes almost immediately after committing them.

"עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ" – Many of the blessings and curses are directly related to the land of Israel, promising children, prosperity, or longevity "on the land that Hashem has given". This might suggest that the promises were first and foremost aimed at the nation in the period before the destruction and exile.

Deferred justice

Role of prophecy – The end of prophecy might be connected with

Ultimate rward

¹ R. Saadia asserts that true retribution comes only in the next world, but he states that nonetheless some rewards are given already in this world, to serve as a sign that one will eventually receive full recompense.

² R. Yehuda HaLevi speaks of the collective retribution of this world and the individual rewards of the World to Come, but suggests that there might also be at least minimal reward to the individual, too, in this world: "וְעוֹד שֶׁבָּעוֹלָם הַזֶּה יִתֵּן לָהֶם תְּמוּרָה טוֹבָה וְיֵיטִיב לָהֶם בִּקְצָת טוֹבָה יִהְיוּ בָהּ נִכָּרִים מִשְּׁכֵנֵיהֶם".

³ This seems to be how R"Y Albo understands the rewards/punishments mentioned in Torah as a whole, as he explicitly states that Torah never speaks of individual retribution in this world, only of national recompense (ונתבאר מדברינו שלא נזכר בתורה השכר האישיי הגשמיי כמו שחשבו רבים אלא הרוחני הפרטי והגשמיי הכללי).  At first glance his comments in Sefer HaIkkarim 4:294:294:40About R. Yosef Albo appear to contradict this as he writes: והדעת הרביעי הוא דעת מי שיאמין שהשכר ממנו גשמי ובעולם הזה וממנו רוחני ובעולם הבא אחר המות, וזהו דעת תורתנו הקדושה שיעדה יעודים גשמיים פרטיים לצדיקים כמו לאבות ולזולתם".  It is possible, though, that here too, R"Y Albo is referring to collective physical rewards, but noting that also exceptional individuals such as the Patriarchs will merit such rewards as well.  [Alternatively, he might maintain that even though the Torah does not mention specific rewards for the individual, the individual nonetheless does receive rewards in both worlds.]

⁴ It is possible that this is R. Tarfon's position in Mishna AvotAvot 2:16About the Mishna as well, where he states, "וְנֶאֱמָן הוּא בַעַל מְלַאכְתְּךָ שֶׁיְּשַׁלֵּם לְךָ שְׂכַר פְּעֻלָּתֶךָ. וְדַע מַתַּן שְׂכָרָן שֶׁל צַדִּיקִים לֶעָתִיד לָבֹא", implying perhaps that there is only reward in the next world, and thus stressing that one should not worry for Hashem will be faithful and ultimately compensate all (even if in this world it does not appear that way.)

⁵ See, for instance the rewards and punishments promised in Shemot 15:26,  Vayikra 26, Devarim 7:11-16, Devarim 11:13-25, Devarim 28 or Devarim 29:21-27.  As these include agricultural blessings, promises of victory over enemies, abundance of children, and health, they would seem to relate to this world rather than the next.

⁶ This is also R. Shemuel EidelsMaharsha Chidushei Aggadot Kiddushin 39bAbout R. Shemuel Eidels (Maharsha)' understanding of R. Yaakov's position in Kiddushin, "די״ל לרבי יעקב דמודה דזכות הרבים ומעשיהם הטובים מביאים להם כל הברכות והטובות שנזכרו בתורה גם בעוה״ז וכן בהיפך בחטא הרבים אבל ר״י לא אמר כן אלא ביחיד". See also R. Elazar in Kiddushin 40bKiddushin 40bAbout the Bavli who notes that "the world is judged by the majority".

⁷ See, for instance, Shemot 23:27, Vayikra 26:3-12 / Vayikra 26:14-21, Devarim 7:16, Devarim 11:13-17, Devarim 28:1-13, 21-25, 49-63, and Devarim 29:21-27. All of these naturally affect an entire group, not the individual.

⁸ See also Devarim 5:25, 29, Devarim 11:8-9, 13-25 and Devarim 32:46-47.

⁹ R"Y Albo points to Devarim 28:36, which speaks of "you and your king" going into exile, clearly referring to the nation at large.  See also Devarim 7:14 ("בָּרוּךְ תִּהְיֶה מִכׇּל הָעַמִּים"), Devarim 28:9 ("יְקִימְךָ י״י לוֹ לְעַם קָדוֹשׁ") and Devarim 28:52 ("וְהֵצַר לְךָ בְּכׇל שְׁעָרֶיךָ בְּכׇל אַרְצְךָ"). Other verses (Devarim 29:23-27) foretell how outsiders will view the fate of the country when the blessings / curses come to fruition, further supporting the idea that Biblical rewards are aimed at the group rather than the individual.
In addition, the collective context of specific verses implies that even surrounding verses which could theoretically be explained to refer only to the individual refer to the group as well. Thus, though the blessings of Devarim 28:3-8 are all worded in the singular ("בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה") and could easily refer only to individuals, the fact that they are followed by a discussion of how the nation will perceived after these have been bestowed, suggests that even the initial blessings of the list speak of the collective.  Similarly, though Shemot 23:26 refers to the removal of barrenness, a promise which might be understood to refer to an individual, the verse's addition of "in your land" ("לֹא תִהְיֶה מְשַׁכֵּלָה וַעֲקָרָה בְּאַרְצֶךָ") suggests that it is referring to a nation-wide phenomenon.

¹⁰ It would be very difficult to suggest that all discussions of recompense in the Torah refer only to the next world as many speak of purely physical phenomena (as discussed above), all of which would seem to be irrelevant to the next world.  However, one could perhaps posit an in-between position, that all the rewards refer only to the eras of Mashiach and Revival of the Dead which are to usher one into the next world.  See R. BachyaAbout R. Bachya ibn Pakuda who writes, "והנה כל הפרשה הזאת בין ביעודים גופניים בין ביעודים שכליים הבטחה עתידה היא, כי מעולם לא נתקיימה אבל תתקיים בזמן השלמות". [In this he follows RambanBereshit 17:1Bereshit 18:19Shemot 13:16Vayikra 26:11Vayikra 26:12Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 11:13Devarim 11:13About R. Moshe b. Nachman, but Ramban suggests that the only reason the rewards are to come in the time of Mashiach is because it is then that the nation will first merit them; implying that if the entire nation is deserving earlier, the promises will come to fruition earlier.]

¹¹ These verses refer to honoring one's parents and sending away the mother bird.  Similar blessings are mentioned for honesty in business dealings in Devarim 25:15, and for general observance of mitzvot in Devarim 5:25, Devarim 5:29, Devarim 6:24, Devarim 12:28 and Devarim 32:47.

¹² This, however, is difficult in this specific case, as the verse explicitly states, "עַל הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר י״י אֱלֹהֶיךָ נֹתֵן לָךְ", suggesting that the promise applies to this world. Nonetheless, the concept can be applied to other verses such as as Devarim 5:25, Devarim 6:24, and Devarim 12:28 (none of which mention specific physical goods or that the blessing will apply "on the land."  See R"Y Albo who explains also the promises of "וָחַי בָּהֶם" in Vayikra 18:5 to refer to eternal life.

¹³ See also R. Yonah.

¹⁴ Cf. SefornoVayikra 26:12Devarim 5:15Devarim 5:29Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 7:12Devarim 22:7About R. Ovadyah Seforno who claims that any good that is reaped by an individual in this world is a "חסד", not retribution for his deeds.

¹⁵ Rambam notes that this is the reason that all yearn for the Messianic age as well.  The peace that will mark the era will enable all to engage in Torah and mitzvot, meriting all with the rewards of the next world.

¹⁶ The same is true for sinners.  Once someone has embarked on a path of evil, he is cursed with travails, making observance more difficult and paving the way for his true punishment in the next world.

¹⁷ Others examples include the spies, Yehuda's sons, Miriam, Korach, Datan and Aviram, and more.

¹⁸ The Divine punishment of Adam and Chavvah or Kayin might also be viewed as exceptional, as they lived before the giving of the Torah, when modes of providence might have been different.  Moreover, there was no human courts in place at the time to deliver justice in this world.

¹⁹ These would not be difficult for Rambam, who would view each of these as speaking of enablers, as discussed above.

²⁰ See the singular formulation: "אֶל פָּנָיו לְהַאֲבִידוֹ".

²¹ See Rashbam and R"Y Bekhor Shor here and the discussion in Are Children Punished for Parents' Sins?. One could alternatively explain, like Ralbag, that the verse is referring to the immediate punishment of the collective, speaking of  enemy nations, not individual sinners. Hence, the initial plural  formulation of "לְשֹׂנְאָיו". [Ralbag himself, however, understands the verse as a whole in a different manner.  Following the Targum and others, he assumes that the verse refers to early rewarding of sinners for the few positive actions they perform, so as to more fully punish them later.]

²² See, for instance, the promise of long life for honoring one's parents in Shemot 20:11 or for using proper weights in business in Devarim 25:15.

²³ See Ibn EzraShemot Second Commentary 20:11About R. Avraham ibn Ezra, RalbagVayikra 26:4-5Devarim 5:29Devarim 6:24-25Devarim 22:7Shemot Beur HaParashah 20:11Shemot Toalot 23:25Vayikra Toalot 26:3Devarim Toalot 6:24Milchamot Hashem 4:4Milchamot Hashem 4:6About R. Levi b. Gershom, ShadalShemot 20:11Devarim 6:24About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto and Hoil MosheShemot 20:11About R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi .

²⁴ See above that others suggest that these refer to rewards of the next world.

²⁵ He explains the mechanism of the collective reward, noting that a society in which people revere their parents is one in which people have respect for their elders.  This, in turn, leads to general Torah observance, meriting the nation to live in Israel and not be exiled.
Though he and the other exegetes address only Shemot 20, the same logic could be applied to other similar verses which also grant long or good life for individual observance of specific commands. Another example where the text itself might imply national retribution for what appears to be an individual transgression is Shemot 22:21-23.  As the chapter as a whole speaks of recompense to be meted out in human courts for individual crimes, it would seem that these verses, too, speak of an individual's actions, yet nonetheless the punishment appears collective in nature, "וְחָרָה אַפִּי וְהָרַגְתִּי אֶתְכֶם בֶּחָרֶב".

²⁶ Alternatively, this approach could explain that this case is exceptional, as it speaks of a scenario in which human courts fail to do their job ("הַעְלֵם יַעְלִימוּ עַם הָאָרֶץ אֶת עֵינֵיהֶם מִן הָאִישׁ הַהוּא"), leaving Hashem to fill in.

²⁷ For the Rambam, the biggest punishment is that a soul should cease to exist and lose the opportunity of joining in the spiritual good of the next world.

²⁸ See Rambam, Ralbag, Ran, R"Y Albo, and Abarbanel.

²⁹ The more righteous one is (or the more in line with the Active Intellect), the more providence one will receive. Ralbag notes that, as a result, it is possible that some people might not merit any individual providence at all.  Even a basically good person, who at times benefits from Divine providence, might not merit enough providence to cause Hashem to overturn nature on  his behalf.

³⁰ These sources do not use the language of natural order but instead refer to "מערכת הכוכבים".

³¹ The Ran points to Rava's statement in Bavli Moed Katan 28a  that length of life and livelihood are dependent on the constellations rather than one's merits, as proven by the very different fates of Rabbah and R. Chisda despite their both being Torah giants.

³² For example, if one deserves rain, but his neighbors do not, to make the individual's crops grow while the neighbors' suffer drought requires a miracle.

³³ R. Yaakov's position that "שְׂכַר מִצְוָה בְּהַאי עָלְמָא לֵיכָּא"  is presented in Bavli ChulinChulin 142aAbout the Bavli as an answer to Elisha b. Avuyah's questioning of a real life scenario, where a son who both honors his father and observes the commandment of sending away the mother bird, gets not long life as promised by the Torah, but early death!

³⁴ This issue, though, might still be somewhat difficult for the Rambam who suggests that people who perform mitzvot should receive the benefits listed in Torah, even if they are not considered rewards.

³⁵ See Theodicy – צדיק ורע לו for a full discussion.

³⁶ See R. Yaakov's statement in Mishnah Avot 4:16, "הָעוֹלָם הַזֶּה דּוֹמֶה לִפְרוֹזְדוֹר בִּפְנֵי הָעוֹלָם הַבָּא".

³⁷ The Rambam explains that the Messianic era will occur sometime in the future, in this world itself.  It will not be marked by the supernatural, but rather by a just leader, world peace and conditions which will enable people to learn and observe Torah with ease.
Rambam is a bit more ambiguous about the nature of the period of the Resurrection of the Dead.  He claims that it is a phenomenon limited to the righteous alone and appears to believe that souls will come back to life with a body, but then die again to return to עולם הבא, where they resume their purely spiritual existence and continue to enjoy this ultimate reward.  Given that Rambam believes that life in עולם הבא is the better existence, and that souls can enjoy it from the moment of death, it is not clear what he thinks is the purpose of the Resurrection.

³⁸ See AbarbanelShemot 20:11Vayikra 26:3Devarim 4:15Devarim 22:6Devarim 32 IntroductionNachalat Avot Mishna Avot 1:3About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel who discusses seven different approaches taken by his predecessors. Others, too, have made similar lists.  See R. Bachya4:4About R. Bachya ibn Pakuda, R"Y Albo4:104:114:294:304:334:394:40About R. Yosef Albo and Keli Yekar (who mainly summarizes Abarbanel's list.)

³⁹ questions that there are many other difficlt concepts in torah which were not hidden despite the fcat that many might not be able to comprehend them.

⁴⁰ See also Shadal in his letter to Almeda: "However, for purposes of sanction in his laws, Moses announced rewards that were earthly, natural, verifiable in this life,
and such a sanction was much more effective than one that would
have been drawn from heavenly rewards, supported by faith alone." (See Daniel Klein, "A Letter to Almeda:Shadal’s Guide for the Perplexed," Hakirah 10: 225-241 for a  translation of the full letter.)

⁴¹ The Kuzari adds that among the blessings promised for this world are also spiritual ones (for instance, Vayikra 26:12 promises" "וְהִתְהַלַּכְתִּי בְּתוֹכְכֶם וְהָיִיתִי לָכֶם לֵאלֹהִים"). When people see that even in this world, one's soul can cling to the Divine and reap spiritual rewards, they will know by a priori argument that in the spiritual world to come, their souls will surely be able to benefit similarly.

⁴² It is not clear from a simple reading of the Mishnah and gemara what is the extent of the reward to be received. The Netziv, though, claims that the Mishnah, "׳כל העושה מצוה אחת מטיבין לו ומאריכין לו ימיו ונוחל את הארץ׳" teaches that one receives retribution for each mitzvah in both worlds.  See also Rabbenu Tam'sKiddushin 39bAbout Ba'alei HaTosafot's understanding of Abbaye's explanation of the Mishnah, "דְּעָבְדִין לֵיהּ יוֹם טָב וְיוֹם בִּישׁ", that a wicked person gets mostly punishments in this world, and an occasional good day to reward him for any good deeds that he has done (and vice versa for a righteous individual) which might suggest that he, too, thinks that this world's retribution is for all deeds.

⁴³ Other sources scattered throughout the Talmud () also imply that there is individual reward/punishment already in this world. It is hard to tell from such statements, though, if they think this is true for all mitzvot or just a select few.

⁴⁴ See, for example,  Vayikra 26:3-12, Devarim 5:25, 29, Devarim 11:8-9, 13-25 and Devarim 32:46-47.

⁴⁵ Seethe many blessings/ cures in Vayikra 26, Devarim 11, or Devarim 28 which relate to rain or drought, victory or defeat in war, plague, exile and the like

⁴⁶ See, for instance, rewards of longevity for honoring parents (Shemot 20:11 and R. David Zvi HoffmannShemot 20:11About R. David Zvi Hoffmann there), sending away the mother bird (Devarim 22:6-7), or honesty in business (Devarim 25:15), Hashem's promise to punish one who sleeps with his uncle (Vayikra 20:20), or blessings of prosperity for one who gives the tithe of the poor (Devarim 14:28-29) or loans to the disadvantaged (Devarim 15:7-10).

⁴⁷ See Shemot 20:11 and Devarim 25:15.

⁴⁸ See the punishment of dying without children in Vayikra 20:20.

⁴⁹ See the promise of success "בְּכׇל מַעֲשֶׂךָ וּבְכֹל מִשְׁלַח יָדֶךָ" in Devarim 14:28-29 and Devarim 15:7-10.

⁵⁰ As Hashem is addressing every individual within the nation (and not speaking to one person at a time), it is natural to address them in the plural, even if the words apply to each personally.

⁵¹ See R. SaadiaCommentary Bereshit 6:7HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 5:1HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 6:5HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 8:2HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9:1HaEmunot VeHaDeiot 9:2About R. Saadia Gaon who notes this, and concludes from this fact that even future rewards of the next world will be for both the body and soul.

⁵² Alternatively, one might suggest that even in the next world there will be some level of physical rewards, which the body and soul together will enjoy. [See the above note that this is how R. Saadia envisions the World to Come.]
R. Saadia explains that this is necessary even if one has already received similar recompense in this world, because no matter how many rewards one gets in this world, these are always accompanied by worry and tainted by outside factors, so that one can never fully enjoy them.

⁵³ Conversely, when good is brought to the collective, Hashem will ensure that a wicked individual not share in it, so that he gets his proper punishment. Thus, while rain might come to reward the righteous individual, the crops of a neighboring wicked person might nonetheless fail.

⁵⁴ His motivation in positing this appear to be a reluctance to have any evil be brought directly from God.  If sin, on its own, brings afflictions, man has no one to blame but himself when tragedy strikes.

⁵⁵ He states that in times of anger, Divine providence will only serve to protect someone if he is righteous enough to merit a miracle.

⁵⁶ For this and other takes on collective punishment, see Collective Punishment, Collective Punishment for Akhan's Sin, and Are Children Punished for Parents' Sins.

⁵⁷ Thus, despite receiving rewards in this world, full justice is not served until the World to Come.

⁵⁸ For elaboration on this approach to the question of theodicy, see צדיק ורע לו.

⁵⁹ As there are often hidden goods, or good disguised as bad, one might not recognize such blessings immediately.  For fuller discussion of this suggestion, see Theodicy – צדיק ורע לו.

⁶⁰ At times one might receive retribution for one's deed only months or years after it was performed.

⁶¹ See the classic example in Bavli Kiddushin discussed in the introduction.

⁶² According to the Netziv, who views retribution as a natural outcome of one's deeds, one might suggest that in such cases two natural processes might be in competition with one another. If, for instance, one climbs an unstable ladder to send away the mother bird, on one hand nature dictates that he deserves a reward for observance of the mitzvah, yet on the other hand, nature simultaneously dictates that he might fall from the ladder.

⁶³ As Bavli Pesachim 8a-b asserts, "האומר סלע זו לצדקה בשביל שיחיה בני או שאהיה בן העוה״ב הרי זה צדיק גמור".

⁶⁴ This would appear to be the simple understanding of these sources.  It is possible, however, to explain that the Mishnah is not saying that one will be rewarded/punished by Hashem for observance of these mitzvot in this world, but only that one will reap the natural benefits/detriments of such behavior.

⁶⁵ This is the simple understanding of R. Yochanan's words, but, here too, it is possible that R. Yochanan is referring to natural consequences rather than active retribution.

⁶⁶ In his introduction to Yeshayahu, Shadal speaks about how one can only understand Tanakh if one recognizes that there is Divine providence and reward and punishment in this world.  Though he is not explicit if he is referring to the individual or only to the collective, the continuation of his comments suggest the former.  Nonetheless, it is still not clear if he assumes that the rewards of this world are meted out for all mitzvot, or only on occasion, for observance of specific mitzvot or perhaps for general upright behavior.

⁶⁷ See the similar list in Bavli ShabbatShabbat 127a-bAbout the Bavli which adds also visiting the sick, hospitality, and prayer.  The gemara there suggests that all of these fall under the more general category of "loving kindness" mentioned in Mishnah Peah. Similarly, their addition of judging everyone favorably might parallel Peah's "peace-making" between individuals.

⁶⁸ He does not address how the mitzvah of learning Torah fits into this categorization, saying only that it is equivalent to all as it learning brings to action.

⁶⁹ In some printed editions of Rambam's commentary, the translation reads, "יקבל כמו כן שכר מהענין ההוא", explicitly referring to the good that the individual will receive as a reward.  In the translation of R. Kapach's, however, he uses the term "תועלת", benefit.  If so, Rambam might simply be speaking of the natural benefits of proper interactions with the other and not real "reward".  [This reading would fit better with Rambam's overall approach to reward and punishment discussed in the first approach above.].

⁷⁰ Chovot HaLevavot precedes and might have influenced the Rambam's reading of the Mishna (though his comments are unconnected to the Mishna.) He distinguishes between "concealed" obligations of the heart (those that affect only the individual and God) and "revealed" obligations of the limbs (those that affect others as well).  Visible duties get visible rewards in this world, while concealed ones are rewarded with the hidden good of the next world. R. Bachya points to Devarim 29:28 as support, "הַנִּסְתָּרֹת לַה' אֱלֹהֵינוּ וְהַנִּגְלֹת לָׄנׄוּׄ וּׄלְׄבָׄנֵׄיׄנׄוּׄ עַׄד עוֹלָם".

⁷¹ Though gossip would seem to be a "minor" crime, its inclusion in the list and the statement that it is equivalent to all suggests that the Tosefta is trying to underscore how serious the sin is.

⁷² See also Devarim 5:25, Devarim 6:1-3, Devarim 7:11-16, and Devarim 11:13-25.

⁷³ Most of these verses are prefaced with a statement to the effect of "וְהָיָה אִם שָׁמוֹעַ תִּשְׁמַע בְּקוֹל י״י" or "אִם בְּחֻקֹּתַי תֵּלֵכוּ", mentioning keeping Hashem's laws as a whole, but not specifying any one commandment..

⁷⁴ These units either specifically mention the nation, are worded in the plural, or speak of naturally collective retribution such as rain or war. [See the discussion above for elaboration.]

⁷⁵ Cf. Rashbam who suggests that the blessings and curses of Vayikra 26 actually refer not to general observance but to the specific mitzvot of Shemittah and Yovel, the subject of the previous chapter.  See Blessings and Curses – Over Which Commandments for further discussion. [Whether or not one, then, thinks that these verses, too, speak of recompense for mitzvot between man and his creator depends on how one understands the goal of these two laws. See Purpose of Shemittah that some commentators assume they revolve around recognition of Hashem and others that they deal with social justice.]

⁷⁶ See, for instance, rewards of longevity for honoring parents (Shemot 20:11), sending away the mother bird (Devarim 22:6-7), or honesty in business (Devarim 25:15), Hashem's promise to punish one who sleeps with his uncle (Vayikra 20:20) or worships the Molekh (Vayikra 20:1-5), or blessings of prosperity for one who gives the tithe of the poor (Devarim 14:28-29) or loans to the disadvantaged (Devarim 15:7-10).

⁷⁷ The fact that several of these specifically mention the individual (see Vayikra 20:1-5's "אֶתֵּן אֶת פָּנַי בָּאִישׁ הַהוּא" or Devarim 29:17s', "אִישׁ אוֹ אִשָּׁה") and others speak of individual observance such as respect for parents, or mention rewards that naturally affect the individual (dying childlesss or longevity) further supports the idea that these rewards are aimed at the individual.

⁷⁸ In contrast to the analysis here, see Yerushlami PeahPeah 1:1About the Yerushalmi which derive the list of mitzvot included in the Mishna and Tosefta from other verses throughout Tanakh. 

⁷⁹ One exception is gossip. However, despite the fact that this sin is not singled out by Torah, the story of Miryam's slandering of Moshe and subsequent Divine punishment, supports its inclusion in the list, as it suggests that it, too, is a crime which is punished in this world. [Though less explicit, one might also point to the story of Yosef.  All of his travails follow his having brought "דיבה רעה" about his brothers to his father.]

⁸⁰ In several cases, however, the Mishna and Tosefta bring a general category where Tanakh might mention a very specific example. For example, while the Torah speaks of the specific sexual misdemeanor of a man sleeping with his aunt, the Tosefta talks of גילוי עריות in general. Similarly, while Torah rewards very specific examples of acts of kindness (giving tithes and loans to the poor), Mishna Peah generalizes and speaks of all גמילות חסדים. [Rambam then expands the category even further to include all interpersonal acts.]  The following list demonstrates the correspondence:

• כִּבּוּד אָב וָאֵם – Honoring parents is rewarded with longevity in Shemot 20:11.
• וּגְמִילוּת חֲסָדִים וַהֲבָאַת שָׁלוֹם – Devarim 14:28-29 and Devarim 15:7-10 promise prosperity to one who has given the tithe of the poor or loans to the disadvantaged, acts of חסד.‎ [Conversely, oppression of the widow and orphan is met with promises of death (Shemot 22:21-23). ]
• עבודה זרה – In Vayikra 20:3 Hashem explicitly targets the individual worshiper of the Molekh, and in Devarim 29:17-20, He curses an individual who turns to idolatry with the punishments mentioned in Devarim 28. [Many other verses speak of punishment for idolatry but most target the collective or are mentioned in the context of the human court system.]
• גילוי עריות – Vayikra 20:20 specifies punishment of childlessness to one who sleeps with his aunt.
• שפיכות דמים – Though there is no specific curse mentioned for murder, already in Bereshit 9, Hashem says that He will seek the death of all who kill (וְאַךְ אֶת דִּמְכֶם לְנַפְשֹׁתֵיכֶם אֶדְרֹשׁ), suggesting that he is referring to Divine rather than human punishment.

The above list includes almost all the specific deeds for which reward or punishment is specified in Torah. Two exceptions include the sending away of the mother bird and using proper weights in business, both of which merit longevity.  They do not make it into the list of the Mishna in Peah, but could easily fit into Rambam's expanded category of "mitzvot that relate to the other" or Chovot HaLevavot's "mitzvot of the limbs". [Alternatively, they might also be perceived as other examples of loving kindness and peacemaking.]

⁸¹ For example, see the punishments of Kayin for murder, David for murder and adultery, and Miryam for gossip.

⁸² Tanakh share the crimes and punishments of its characters much more often than their rewards.

⁸³ One might question why, then, he also receives reward in the World to Come. According to Rambam, since the interaction with the other is this worldly, it deserves reward here, but since the very observance of the command, an act of obedience to Hashem, is a spiritual act, it is deserving of compensation also in the next world.  [According to Chovot HaLevvaot, in contrast, it seems that the physical reward suffices.]

⁸⁴ Some blessings, such as many of those listed in Vayikra 26 and Devarim 28 which speak of national goods (rain, plague, peace, or exile) might be aimed at the collective, while others, such as promises of longevity or curses of barrenness, might be aimed at the individual.

⁸⁵ By its very nature, immediate punishment tends to be miraculous, as even natural ailments such as disease do not normally come in direct response to sin.

⁸⁶ For instance, the defeat at Ai is attributed to the sin of Akhan, while the salvation from Assyria is connected to the righteous Chizkiyahu's prayers.

⁸⁷ The famine in the time of David (Shemuel II 21) is due to Shaul's sin of having killed the Givonites, while the drought in the time of Eliyahu is a direct result of the nation's worship of the Baal.

⁸⁸ Thus Melakhim 17 lists the sins that led to the exile of the ten tribes, explicitly portraying the event as retribution for sins and not a natural occurrence.  The fall of Yehuda is similalry attributed to sin, with the text blaming the destruction on Menashe and his filling of the land with innocent blood.

⁸⁹ Keli Yekar explains that when people fail to recognize Hashem's hand and assume all is up to chance, Hashem punishes accordingly, removing His Divine providence and leaving man to the whims of nature.

⁹⁰ During such times, Hashem's earlier providence is no longer manifest, and retribution is no longer meted out in this world.

⁹¹ He, himself, does not speak in terms of reward and punishments, but only natural versus supernatural leadership and providence. His approach, however, can be applied to the realm of retribution as well.  Less Divine providence goes hand in hand with fewer rewards / punishments.

⁹² This was evident in their request to send spies to scout the land, necessary only if one is planning a natural conquest.  One could suggest that the very desire not to be guided miraculously was sinful, and that Hashem then punished them measure for measure: they asked for Divine providence to be removed and so it was. If one takes this approach, then this is just another example of Hashem's "hiding of his face" due to sin.  Netziv, himself, however, does not view the request as sinful, noting that living directly in the presence of Hashem is frightening and beyond most laymen.

⁹³ He notes that the wars of the fortieth year are all fought naturally without miraculous intervention.

⁹⁴ One might see this gradual process in the slow weaning away from both miracles and immediate punishment. 

• In the wilderness period, the nation felt continuous divine intervention, witnessing many overt, impressive miracles (like the splitting of the sea), and daily feeling the hand of God through the miraculous manna.  Upon arrival in Israel, such miracles do not cease totally (as evidenced by Hashem's assistance in the conquest) but they are more sporadic so that daily living is more or less natural. In later periods, miracles are even less apparent as explicit national miracles almost disappear totally (the salvation from Assyria being an important exception) and in their stead, we read of Divine intervention for the individual (such as the miracles performed by Eliyahu and Elisha or for Daniel).
• In the realm of  punishment, the main difference between the wilderness and monarchic periods appears to be on the collective level. This worldly retribution continues, but it tends to be less immediate and less miraculous than earlier.  The people suffer from war, drought and the like much more often than from Divine plague or heavenly fire, and though these closely follow sin, they are generally not instantaneous.

⁹⁵ Moshe, too, recognized the dangers of Hashem's being too close, but found the alternative, of Hashem's decision to remove His presence, equally problematic.