Difference between revisions of "Seeing Hashem/2"
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<point><b>"יֵרֵד י״י לְעֵינֵי כׇל הָעָם"</b> – R. Avraham b. HaRambam asserts that this refers to the created light ('כבוד ה) and not to Hashem Himself. Ramban agrees but says that the nation viewed this as a "consuming fire", drawing off the description later in the chapter, "יָרַד עָלָיו י״י בָּאֵשׁ" and in Shemot 24, "וּמַרְאֵה כְּבוֹד י״י כְּאֵשׁ אֹכֶלֶת בְּרֹאשׁ הָהָר".</point> | <point><b>"יֵרֵד י״י לְעֵינֵי כׇל הָעָם"</b> – R. Avraham b. HaRambam asserts that this refers to the created light ('כבוד ה) and not to Hashem Himself. Ramban agrees but says that the nation viewed this as a "consuming fire", drawing off the description later in the chapter, "יָרַד עָלָיו י״י בָּאֵשׁ" and in Shemot 24, "וּמַרְאֵה כְּבוֹד י״י כְּאֵשׁ אֹכֶלֶת בְּרֹאשׁ הָהָר".</point> | ||
<point><b>Face to face encounter at Sinai</b> – This approach could suggest that the episode is described as a "face to face" encounter not because the people saw Hashem directly, but because they heard Him directly at Sinai,<fn>According to R. Saadia, Hashem's words were directed at Moshe and the nation overheard them. Though at first glance it would be difficult to refer to this as "face to face", it is possible that R. Saadia thinks that as opposed to most prophecies, this one was not mediated by an angel, and in that sense it was direct.</fn> All they saw at Sinai was a created image of His glory which had descended on the mountain, not Hashem Himself.</point> | <point><b>Face to face encounter at Sinai</b> – This approach could suggest that the episode is described as a "face to face" encounter not because the people saw Hashem directly, but because they heard Him directly at Sinai,<fn>According to R. Saadia, Hashem's words were directed at Moshe and the nation overheard them. Though at first glance it would be difficult to refer to this as "face to face", it is possible that R. Saadia thinks that as opposed to most prophecies, this one was not mediated by an angel, and in that sense it was direct.</fn> All they saw at Sinai was a created image of His glory which had descended on the mountain, not Hashem Himself.</point> | ||
| − | <point><b>Elders at Sinai</b> – R. Saadia and R"Y Albo asserts that when the verse states, "ויראו את אלהי ישראל / ויחזו את האלהים", this, too, refers to the "glory" of Hashem rather than Hashem Himself.<fn>See also Targum Onkelos who writes, "וַחֲזוֹ יָת<b> יְקָר</b> אֱלָהָא דְּיִשְׂרָאֵל".</fn>  One might question, though, what was so unique about the vision, considering that the nation had also seen Hashem's glory on the mountain. They might answer that the nation saw this created light only from a long distance and while it was heavily veiled.<fn>The mountain was covered by a thick cloud and dense smoke when the glory descended.</fn> The elders, on the other hand, viewed it from a closer distance and while less obscured.<fn>Alternatively, it is possible that the very nature of the glory which was seen by each group was qualitatively different.</fn> | + | <point><b>Elders at Sinai</b> – R. Saadia and R"Y Albo asserts that when the verse states, "ויראו את אלהי ישראל / ויחזו את האלהים", this, too, refers to the "glory" of Hashem rather than Hashem Himself.<fn>See also Targum Onkelos who writes, "וַחֲזוֹ יָת<b> יְקָר</b> אֱלָהָא דְּיִשְׂרָאֵל".</fn>  One might question, though, what was so unique about the vision, considering that the nation had also seen Hashem's glory on the mountain. They might answer that the nation saw this created light only from a long distance and while it was heavily veiled.<fn>The mountain was covered by a thick cloud and dense smoke when the glory descended.</fn> The elders, on the other hand, viewed it from a closer distance and while less obscured.<fn>Alternatively, it is possible that the very nature of the glory which was seen by each group was qualitatively different.</fn></point> |
| − | <point><b>Moshe's request</b> – R. Saadia suggests that the created light which constitutes Hashem's glory is so bright and powerful that no mortal can actually look at it directly and live. Moshe requested that Hashem, nonetheless, give him the power to do so. Hashem replied that he would not be able to see the light in its introductory phase when it is at it strongest, but Hashem would cover his eyes until that passed and then Moshe would be able to see the last less powerful rays, "וְרָאִיתָ אֶת אֲחֹרָי".</point> | + | <point><b>Moshe's request</b> – R. Saadia suggests that the created light which constitutes Hashem's glory is so bright and powerful that no mortal can actually look at it directly and live. Moshe requested that Hashem, nonetheless, give him the power to do so. Hashem replied that he would not be able to see the light in its introductory phase when it is at it strongest, but Hashem would cover his eyes until that passed and then Moshe would be able to see the last less powerful rays, "וְרָאִיתָ אֶת אֲחֹרָי".<fn>See R"Y Bekhor Shor similarly.</fn></point> |
</category> | </category> | ||
</approaches> | </approaches> | ||
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</aht-xml> | </aht-xml> | ||
Version as of 13:48, 12 February 2020
Seeing Hashem
Exegetical Approaches
Direct Revelation of Hashem
At times, Hashem directly reveals Himself, allowing humans to glimpse God Himself.
"לֹא יִרְאַנִי הָאָדָם וָחָי" – This approach assumes that humans are physically capable of receiving a direct revelation of Hashem, yet doing so generally results in death. There are, however, certain exceptions:
- Stay of execution – Rashi maintains that though in all cases in which humans directly see Hashem they will die, in exceptional circumstances this death can be delayed. Thus, though Nadav and Avihu and the elders saw Hashem at Sinai (Shemot 24), Hashem pushed off their deaths so as not to mar the happiness of receiving the Torah with the tragedy of their deaths.1
- No death – Rashbam, in contrast, asserts that in some situations, seeing Hashem is a privilege granted by Hashem, not deserving of death at all. When making a covenant, Hashem might honor the second party by allowing them to see Hashem as He passes by.2 Thus, in the Covenant Between the Pieces, Avraham merited to see Hashem pass (Bereshit 15:17-18), at the covenant at Sinai, the elders merited to see Hashem (Shemot 24:10-11), and when Hashem made the covenant in Shemot 34:10, He allowed Moshe to see Him as He passed (Shemot 33:23 and Shemot 34:6).
Revelation at Sinai – This approach might suggest that the revelation at Sinai, being a covenant, was a direct revelation as well, and the people were granted permission to see some manifestation of Hashem.3 This would match the description of the event being a "face to face" encounter, but would appear to contradict Moshe's statement, "לֹא רְאִיתֶם כׇּל תְּמוּנָה בְּיוֹם דִּבֶּר י״י אֲלֵיכֶם". The seeming contradiction might be resolved in a number of ways:
- It is possible that Hashem granted the nation permission to look, but only from afar, at which distance the nation could not really see Hashem regardless.4 As such, they saw no "picture", though they did watch Hashem's descent, as per the literal understanding of "יֵרֵד י״י לְעֵינֵי כׇל הָעָם". The encounter was "face to face" in the sense that nothing concrete obscured the vision, only distance.
- It is also possible that the people really were privileged to see Hashem, but that Hashem does not have a form that can in any way be called a "תְּמוּנָה" and it is this which Moshe emphasizes in Sefer Devarim.5
What did they see? - "וְרָאִיתָ אֶת אֲחֹרָי" – Neither Rashi nor Rashbam elaborate on what it means to see Hashem directly or detail what it was that the people who merited to do so saw. Rashbam, though, implies that even in cases of direct revelation, the vision is veiled or incomplete. By Moshe, the verse states explicitly that Moshe only saw Hashem's "back" and Rashbam claims that this is what the elders in Shemot 24 saw as well. By Avraham, the verses describe a pillar of smoke and fire passing by, suggesting that there, too, the vision was obscured to some degree.
Corporeality of Hashem – It is not clear what Rashi and Rashbam believe regarding the possibility that Hashem might take a corporeal form. If this position were to maintain, as does R. Moshe Taku, that Hashem does adopt one at times, then those who "see Hashem" might actually see a physical manifestation of Hashem and phrases such as "וְרָאִיתָ אֶת אֲחֹרָי" might be understood literally.
"וְלֹא יָמוּת כִּי בֶּעָנָן אֵרָאֶה עַל הַכַּפֹּרֶת" – This position might understand that Hashem is literally revealed on the kapporet and it is for this reason that any who enter and see will die.
Visions of Hashem by prophets - "רָאִיתִי אֶת י״י יֹשֵׁב" – This position must explain how Michayhu, Yeshayahu, Yechezkel and Daniel are all said to see Hashem, describing him sitting on a throne, yet do not die:
- Rashi writes that all prophets (excluding Moshe) see through "a non-transparent glass".6 It is not clear if Rashi's emphasis is on the lack of clarity in these prophet's visions or on the very fact that they occurred in a prophetic dream rather than being a direct and conscious revelation.7 Either way, this opaque viewing is what allowed them to survive the revelation.
- Rashbam speaks explicitly only of Michayhu's vision of Hashem, but appears to concur with the first understanding of Rashi. He states that the vision was fuzzy, like someone who can make out the outline of a friend but not see His face.
Revelation to Avot: "...וַיֵּרָא י״י אֶל" – Neither Rash nor Rashbam address the nature of most of these revelations:
- Prophetic vision & veiled encounter – They could explain them in the same manner as they do the explicit visions of Hashem described by Yeshayahu, Yechezkel and Michayhu discussed above, that these were either prophetic visions or otherwise veiled and fuzzy revelations.
- Hashem = an angel – Alternatively, they might suggest that, at least in some of these cases, the term Hashem refers not to Hashem Himself, but to his messenger, an angel who is called after the One who sent him. This is how Rashbam explains the appearance of "Hashem" to Avraham in Bereshit 18-19 and to Moshe by the Burning Bush.8
"'כְּבוֹד ה" – Neither Rashi nor Rashbam explicitly define the term, but their comments suggest that it might refer to either some aspect of Hashem Himself, a created entity that signifies His presence, or to His deeds which testify to His glory:
- Cloaked manifestation – Rashi might understand it to refer some manifestation of Hashem Himself, but assumes that this is cloaked in the pillar of cloud which would obscure the vision to all who looked at it, protecting them from death.9
- Cloud of glory - Alternatively, Rashi might be understanding the "glory" to refer to the cloud itself, in which case there is no danger at all in seeing it.
- Hashem's deeds – Rashbam maintains that in some of the cases where the term appears, it does not refer to Hashem at all but rather to His miraculous deeds. Thus by the manna, when Moshe and Aharon tell the nation, "וּבֹקֶר וּרְאִיתֶם אֶת כְּבוֹד י״י" (Shemot 16:7), they are referring to the miracle of the manna itself. Similarly, when Vayikra 9:23 states that on the eighth day of Consecration "Hashem's glory appeared" it refers to the miraculous fire than came to consume the offerings.
Does Moshe see more than others?
- Rashi claims that while others could only see Hashem through an "opaque glass", Moshe saw him through a transparent one. Nonetheless, he points out that even Moshe only saw "מראה אחוריים"a and not "מראה שכינה" for even Moshe cannot see the Shechinah and live.10
- Rashbam implies that Moshe did not necessarily see any more than others who similarly merited to receive a direct revelation during a covenantal ceremony. If so, Moshe's uniqueness as a prophet might instead lay in his constant communication with Hashem and his fuller comprehension of the Divine message.
Prophetic Vision
Hashem does not directly reveal Himself to mankind but does appear to them via prophecy. Any image of God that they see is only in a prophetic dream.
Sources:R. Saadia Gaon, Ibn Ezra, R. Chananel, R. Yosef Bekhor Shor, Rambam, Radak, R. Avraham b. HaRambam, Sefer HaIkkarim, Seforno, Shadal, Malbim, R. D"Z Hoffmann
Corporeality of Hashem – These sources deny the corporeality of Hashem and, thus, the possibility that someone might physically see Hashem in any tangible form. Anthropomorphic language (mention of body parts or actions normally requiring a body and the like) is understood metaphorically and is viewed as an attempt to speak in terms that humans can understand. Cases where individuals are said to see Hashem are understood as prophetic visions.
What do prophets see? R. Chananel, R"Y Bekhor Shor, Rambam, and R. Avraham b. HaRambam all imply that every prophet might receive a different prophetic image, with some envisioning Hashem as a king on a throne and others seeing Him as a hero in war or as an elderly man wrapped in a prayer shawl. Sometimes Hashem does not provide an image with a human shape or even any concrete form at all, but rather signals His revelation via a glowing light11 or other created image.12
"לֹא יִרְאַנִי הָאָדָם וָחָי" – These sources offer various explanations of the apparent contradiction between Hashem's assertion that "no man can see Me and live" and the many verses13 in which the simple sense of the text implies that man did in fact see Hashem:
- Physical vs. prophetic seeing – R. Chananel distinguishes between physically seeing Hashem, which is impossible, and prophets receiving an image in a dream or vision, which is possible.14
- Full understanding vs. prophetic image – Rambam, in contrast, asserts that the verse "לֹא יִרְאַנִי הָאָדָם וָחָי" refers not to the inability of mortals to see God, but to their inability to attain a deep, complete understanding of His essence.15 Other verses which speak of seeing God refer to prophetic visions which man can receive with proper preparation.
- Different levels of prophecy – R. Yosef Albo claims that Moshe, being on the highest level of prophecy, could never see Hashem even in a prophetic vision since his prophecies were unaffected by the imagination. Other prophets, though, could see images representing Hashem in their prophetic dreams.16
Revelation to Avot: "...וַיֵּרָא י״י אֶל" – Malbim and R. D"Z Hoffmann17 point out that this formulation (as opposed to the language of "...וַיֹּאמֶר ה' אֶל") refers to a unique type of prophecy in which Hashem not only speaks to a prophet but also appears to them in some visual image.18
"לֹא רְאִיתֶם כׇּל תְּמוּנָה בְּיוֹם דִּבֶּר י״י אֲלֵיכֶם" – Shadal asserts that Moshe's wording, "you did not see a "תְּמוּנָה" (a likeness) of Hashem", teaches not only that the masses did not physically see Hashem at Sinai,19 but that they did not see even a prophetic visual of Him.20
"Face to face" revelation at Sinai – Given both that these sources understand that Hashem does not have a face and that Devarim 4:15 explicitly states, "לֹא רְאִיתֶם כׇּל תְּמוּנָה בְּיוֹם דִּבֶּר י״י אֲלֵיכֶם", all these sources interpret the phrase "פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" non literally:
- Unmediated revelation – Ibn Ezra, R"Y Bekhor Shor, Rambam and R. Hoffmann assert that the description teaches that the nation heard Hashem's words without a mediator,21 not that they saw Hashem's face.
- Conscious prophecy – Seforno understands "פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" to mean that the nation received prophecy while fully in control of their senses. As such, the phrase says nothing about actually seeing the face or any image of Hashem.
- Prophetic image – R. Bachya, following the Midrash22 (and in contrast to Shadal),23 suggests that the phrase "פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" refers to the many images via which Hashem appeared to the different members of the nation during revelation. Though he is not explicit, it appears that he is referring to prophetic images, while the verse "לֹא רְאִיתֶם כׇּל תְּמוּנָה" refers to the nation not having physically seen a picture of Hashem Himself.
"יֵרֵד י״י לְעֵינֵי כׇל הָעָם" (Shemot 19:11) – This phrase, too, is reinterpreted. Shadal claims that it should be understood in light of verse 18, "אֲשֶׁר יָרַד עָלָיו י״י בָּאֵשׁ" and refers to Hashem's glory which took the form of fire. It was this which descended and the people saw, not Hashem Himself.
The elders at Sinai (Shemot 24) – These sources all agree that the elders did not physically see Hashem, but differ in their understanding of what they did see and what the words "לֹא שָׁלַח יָדוֹ" suggest about this "seeing":
- Prophetic vision – Many of these sources24 assume that the verse refers to a prophetic vision.
- Shadal explains that although the masses had only heard Hashem's voice at Sinai,25 the elite were privileged to also prophetically see a created image of Hashem. As others were not meant to see such an image, one might have thought that they would be hurt for having done so. As such, the text shares that Hashem "לֹא שָׁלַח יָדוֹ"; they were unscathed.
- Seforno goes a step further to suggest that the elders merited to prophesy and see this image while still in control of their faculties.26 The phrase "לֹא שָׁלַח יָדוֹ" means that Hashem did not send forth His hand to remove the elders from their senses, not that there was reason to believe that this vision might have deserved them death
- Understanding – Rambam, in contrast, understands the elder's seeing to refer to comprehension of Hashem's essence. Due to improper and insufficient preparation, they only attained a partial understanding of Hashem, and as such were worthy of punishment, of "שליחות יד".
Moshe's request – These sources divide in their understanding of what Moshe requested when he asked, "הַרְאֵנִי נָא אֶת כְּבֹדֶךָ" and in the meaning of Hashem's response, "לֹא תוּכַל לִרְאֹת אֶת פָּנָי..." but all assume that he was not asking to physically see Hashem Himself.
Uniqueness of Moshe's prophecy – These commentators pick up on several aspects of Moshe's prophecy which were unique:
- Moshe prophesied while awake – Ibn Ezra, Rambam, Seforno
- He heard Hashem's messages directly rather than via an angel – Ibn Ezra, Rambam, Abarbanel
- He received a clear message rather than analogies and riddles – Ibn Ezra, R"Y Bekhor Shor, Rambam, Seforno
- He could prophesy whenever he desired – Ibn Ezra, Rambam
- He had a higher level of comprehension of Hashem's essence
"'כְּבוֹד ה" – These sources suggest that, depending on the context, this term can refer to either Hashem's essence (as when Moshe asked to see Hashem's glory), to a light created by Hashem (perhaps meant to signify His presence or distinguish a place as holy), or to Hashem's miracles. According to all these possibilities, in none of the verses in which someone is said to have seen "כְּבוֹד ה" does it mean that they physically saw Hashem Himself.
Seeing angels
Cognitive Experience
When Torah speaks of humans seeing Hashem, it refers to a cognitive experience, man's comprehending of some aspect of Hashem's nature.
Corporeality – These sources deny the corporeality of Hashem and, thus, the possibility that someone might physically see Hashem in any tangible form. Anthropomorphic language (mention of body parts or actions normally requiring a body and the like) is understood metaphorically and is viewed as an attempt to speak in terms that humans can understand. Cases where individuals are said to see Hashem are understood to refer to their having reached a level of cognition of the Divine.
The roots "ראה, הביט וחזה" – Rambam asserts that each of these words have more than one meaning and can refer not only to physical vision, but also to mental insight. As such, the phrases "...וַיֵּרָא י״י אֶל" with regards to the Avot, "רָאִיתִי אֶת ה"/"וָאֶרְאֶה אֶת ה'" by Michayhau and Yeshayahu, "וּתְמֻנַת ה' יַבִּיט" with regards to Moshe, or "וַיֶּחֱזוּ אֶת הָאֱלֹהִים" by the nobility at Sinai all refer to intellectual perception and do not mean that any of these individuals physically saw Hashem.
"לֹא יִרְאַנִי הָאָדָם וָחָי – These sources understand this to mean that no mortal can totally comprehend Hashem's being. This, though, does not preclude someone reaching a lower level of cognition. As such, there is no contradiction between this statement and verses which present individuals as "seeing Hashem"; the latter simply refer to cases where there is incomplete perception.27
The elders at Sinai (Shemot 24) – According to this approach the elders did not physically see Hashem, but rather attempted to understand His essence. Rambam and R. Avraham b. HaRambam28 emphasize that though they were able to achieve a certain level of comprehension, this was at a very low level.29 Rambam criticizes this flawed perception, blaming it on insufficient preparation, and claims that it deserved them death.30 Ralbag, in contrast, raises the possibility that their understanding was a praiseworthy achievement.31
Moshe's request "הַרְאֵנִי נָא אֶת כְּבֹדֶךָ" (Shemot 33) –
Rambam claims that when Moshe asked "הַרְאֵנִי נָא אֶת כְּבֹדֶךָ" he was requesting to perceive Hashem's true essence. Hashem replied that no mortal can attain such understanding ("לֹא יִרְאַנִי הָאָדָם וָחָי"). Hashem, instead, promised Moshe a lower level of perception, that he would comprehend not Hashem's "face" but only His "back" ("וְרָאִיתָ אֶת אֲחֹרָי").
Face to face revelation – According to this approach the description of both the Sinaitic revelation and Moshe's interaction with Hashem as being "face to face" does not imply that either the nation or Moshe witnessed Hashem in any form.32 Rambam suggests that it instead refers to the manner of Hashem's revelation, that the nation at Sinai and Moshe (always) apprehended Hashem without the mediation of angel.33
"'כְּבוֹד ה" – These sources suggest that, depending on the context, this term can refer to Hashem's essence (as when Moshe asked to see Hashem's glory), to a light created by Hashem, or to Hashem's miracles. According to all these possibilities, in none of the verses in which someone is said to have seen "כְּבוֹד ה" does it mean that they physically saw Hashem Himself.
Moshe's Uniqueness – One of the most outstanding characteristics of Moshe's leadership and prophetic prowess was his ability to comprehend more than all others.
"Hashem" reinterpreted
Verses which speak of Hashem appearing to man must be reinterpreted to mean either that Hashem's glory (in the form of a created light, fire or cloud) was revealed, or that there was mediation of an angel.
Corporeality of Hashem – This position denies the possibility that Hashem might take on bodily form, necessitating one to reinterpret any verses which imply that Hashem can be seen.
"כבוד ה" – R. Saadia suggests that this refers to a visual sign, often a bright light, created by Hashem to signify to His prophets that it is Hashem who is speaking to them. The cloud or fire which sometimes appears to the people in the Wilderness is similarly referred to as "כבוד ה" as it, too, serves to verify that Hashem is speaking to their leaders.
Why refer to an angel or Hashem's glory as Hashem? Rashbam explains that a messenger is like the one who sends him since he is simply doing his bidding; as such he might take on his name.34 So, too, an angel fulfilling Hashem's will might be called by the name of Hashem. R"Y Albo adds when one thing belongs to or emanates from another, especially when it serves to represent the other, it might be called by its name. Hence, if Hashem creates a cloud or light to signify Himself, it might be called after Hashem.
Prophetic revelations: "וַיֵּרָא י״י אֶל" – R. Saadia suggests that when Hashem is said to have appeared to a prophet, or prophets are said to have seen an image of Hashem, this refers to His glory, the sign they see to verify who is speaking to them. R"Y Albo asserts that it can also refer to the angel who appears and speaks with the prophet. Thus, for instance, the angel who appears to Moshe in the Burning Bush is referred to as Hashem.
"וַי״י הֹלֵךְ לִפְנֵיהֶם יוֹמָם בְּעַמּוּד עָנָן" – Rashbam, Ibn Ezra and R"Y Albo all assert that it was an angel of Hashem rather than Hashem Himself who went before the nation in the cloud. This is supported by Shemot 14:19 which explicitly mentions "מַלְאַךְ הָאֱלֹהִים הַהֹלֵךְ לִפְנֵי מַחֲנֵה יִשְׂרָאֵל".
"יֵרֵד י״י לְעֵינֵי כׇל הָעָם" – R. Avraham b. HaRambam asserts that this refers to the created light ('כבוד ה) and not to Hashem Himself. Ramban agrees but says that the nation viewed this as a "consuming fire", drawing off the description later in the chapter, "יָרַד עָלָיו י״י בָּאֵשׁ" and in Shemot 24, "וּמַרְאֵה כְּבוֹד י״י כְּאֵשׁ אֹכֶלֶת בְּרֹאשׁ הָהָר".
Face to face encounter at Sinai – This approach could suggest that the episode is described as a "face to face" encounter not because the people saw Hashem directly, but because they heard Him directly at Sinai,35 All they saw at Sinai was a created image of His glory which had descended on the mountain, not Hashem Himself.
Elders at Sinai – R. Saadia and R"Y Albo asserts that when the verse states, "ויראו את אלהי ישראל / ויחזו את האלהים", this, too, refers to the "glory" of Hashem rather than Hashem Himself.36 One might question, though, what was so unique about the vision, considering that the nation had also seen Hashem's glory on the mountain. They might answer that the nation saw this created light only from a long distance and while it was heavily veiled.37 The elders, on the other hand, viewed it from a closer distance and while less obscured.38
Moshe's request – R. Saadia suggests that the created light which constitutes Hashem's glory is so bright and powerful that no mortal can actually look at it directly and live. Moshe requested that Hashem, nonetheless, give him the power to do so. Hashem replied that he would not be able to see the light in its introductory phase when it is at it strongest, but Hashem would cover his eyes until that passed and then Moshe would be able to see the last less powerful rays, "וְרָאִיתָ אֶת אֲחֹרָי".39
