Sin of the Golden Calf/2

Sin of the Golden Calf

Exegetical Approaches

Alternative Deity

The nation viewed the calf as a god and worshiped it either together with or instead of Hashem.  In so doing, they transgressed the commandment, "you shall have no other gods before Me".

Sources:PhiloThe Special Laws, III XXII:125About Philo, BavliSanhedrin 63aAvodah Zarah 53bAbout the Bavli, TanchumaKi Tisa 19Shemini 4About the Tanchuma, Targum Pseudo-JonathanShemot 32:3-6About Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer45About Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer, R. Saadia GaonCommentary Shemot 32:1-6About R. Saadia Gaon, RashiShemot 32:1-6About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, Lekach TovBereshit 32:1About R. Toviah b. Eliezer, R. Avraham b. HaRambamShemot 32:4-9Shemot 32:22About R. Avraham Maimonides,

"עֲשֵׂה לָנוּ אֱלֹהִים" – These sources understand the word "אֱלֹהִים" to mean deity.  However, they disagree whether, in building the calf, the nation was totally forsaking Hashem in favor of a new god,¹ or if they were planning on worshiping the calf together with Hashem (שיתוף).‎²

Why does Moshe's delay spur the sin?

• Lost access to Divine – R. Avraham b. HaRambam claims that the Israelites believed that only someone as perfect as Moshe could access Hashem and that without him, they did not have the power to do so.  As such, when they assumed that Moshe was not coming back,³ they decided to return to the idolatry they had known earlier.⁴
• Lost a perceived deity – Alternatively, this position could posit that the nation had actually perceived Moshe Himself as a god, thinking that all the miracles he performed stemmed from his own powers.  Thus when they believed him gone, they created a new god to take his place.

Why a calf? Philo and R. Avraham b. HaRambam assert that the choice was intentional as a bull held significance for the people from their time in Egypt:⁵

• Egyptian god – Philo maintains that the people chose a bull to imitate the Egyptian God, Typhos, with whom they would have been familiar.⁶
• Astrological sign – R. Avraham b. HaRambam cites his father who posits instead that the people might have asked for a calf thinking that it was under the influence of that astrological sign that they left Egypt.  Thus, they refer to it as, "אֵלֶּה אֱלֹהֶיךָ יִשְׂרָאֵל אֲשֶׁר הֶעֱלוּךָ מֵאֶרֶץ מִצְרָיִם".

"חַג לַי"י מָחָר" – This position must explain why Hashem's proper name is used here, if the people were looking to the calf as an alternative god:

• People's shorthand - This approach could understand this phrase to mean that "tomorrow there will be a feast [for the god who is replacing] Hashem".
• Aharon's perspective – Rashi, however, asserts that, in contrast to the nation, Aharon had no idolatrous thoughts, and really was speaking about Hashem Himself when he said "חַג לַי"י מָחָר".  He was certain that by the morrow, Moshe would arrive and the people would return to serving Hashem.

Offering sacrifices and "צחוק" – The fact that the people bow down⁷ and offer sacrifices before the calf supports the idea that they were worshiping it as a god.  Rashi maintains that the "צחוק" refers to sexual intercourse,⁸ which might be understood as a form of cultic sex rite.

"וַיָּמִירוּ אֶת כְּבוֹדָם בְּתַבְנִית שׁוֹר" – According to this approach the honor of the people referred to in this verse is Hashem.  The psalmist, too, reads the sin as one of foreign worship, claiming that in building the calf the nation replaced Hashem with the likeness of an ox and bowed down to it.

Breaking of the Luchot – According to Rashi, after Moshe saw how the people had betrayed Hashem he considered them unworthy of receiving the Torah.  This position might also suggest, like Ibn EzraShemot Short Commentary 32:19About R. Avraham ibn Ezra below, that the tablets were like a marriage document; when the people proved unfaithful it was torn up.⁹

Drinking of the calf's ashes – Rashi, following R. Yose in Bavli Avodah ZarahAvodah Zarah 43b-44aAbout Bavli Avodah Zarah, asserts that this was comparable to the test of a suspected adulteress (sotah).  Moshe used the water to test and punish those who had been unfaithful to Hashem.¹⁰  One might also posit that in destroying the calf and having the people actually eat it, Moshe highlighted how powerless and unworthy of worship it was.¹¹

Role of Aharon – These sources agree that Aharon did not worship the calf, but defend his active role in different ways:

• Test the people – R. Saadia compares Aharon to Yehu,¹² who similarly pretended to promote idolatry, but only so as to test who was really guilty of Baal worship and then kill them. Even though he waited for the people to bring their sacrifices before punishing them (presumably to ascertain true guilt), he was nonetheless praised for his actions.  So, too, Aharon only acquiesced to the nation's request so as to determine who was guilty of idolatry.¹³
• Delay tactics – Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer and Rashi, instead, maintain that throughout Aharon tried to delay the people, hoping that Moshe would arrive before they sinned.  Thus, he asked the women specifically for their jewelry, assuming they would not give them up so easily,¹⁴ and pushed off the feast until the next day. This defense, however, is not satisfying considering that Aharon should have totally refused to make the idol, even on threat of death.  Moreover, it is not at all clear how afterwards he not only avoids all punishment,¹⁵ but also merits the priesthood.¹⁶

Sinning so soon after Matan Torah – These sources offer several defenses of the nation:

• Influence of mixed multitudes (ערב רב) – Tanchuma, Rashi and R. Avraham b. HaRambam (in the name of his grandfather) attempt to defend the people by suggesting that the idolatry was not really their initiative, but that of the mixed multitudes who had joined the nation upon leaving Egypt.  Tanchuma claims that it was their magic which produced the calf and animated it leading the people to believe in it.¹⁷  As support, Rashi points to the fact that the people say "אֵלֶּה אֱלֹהֶיךָ יִשְׂרָאֵל", speaking from the perspective of outsiders and non-members of Israel.¹⁸

• Influence of Satan – Tanchuma, Rashi and Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer also suggest that the Satan further negatively influenced the nation, leading the people to believe that Moshe had died, or helping to create the calf.
• Slow to change – Alternatively, it is possible that the people had never really forsaken the idolatrous beliefs they held in Egypt.¹⁹ One time miracles, even on the scale of Hashem's revelation, are not enough to change a person's mindset for good.  To instill long lasting belief the people needed continuous education and miracles.²⁰  Thus, as soon as Moshe left, without a teacher to guide them, the people naturally fell back into their old ways.

Aharon's self  defense – R. Avraham b. HaRambam asserts, in the name of his grandfather, that Aharon was blaming the ערב רב.  Aharon's words, "כִּי בְרָע הוּא" are understood to mean that the nation was mixed with evil people.

Severity of punishment – According to this approach, Hashem's initial desire to wipe out the nation is understandable, as they sinned severely.  Both Rashi and R. Avraham b. HaRambam assert that even after Moshe's prayers, many people were punished by death. Though only 3,000 were killed by the Levites,²¹ many more died at Hashem's hand through the plague.

Polemical motivations

Image of Hashem

The people viewed the calf as a concrete object through which they could worship Hashem, similar to the role later played by the Mishkan and Ark.  They did not worship foreign gods, but did transgress the prohibition against making a graven image, even one which represented Hashem Himself.

Sources:Kuzari1:97About R. Yehuda HaLevi, Ibn Ezra,Shemot Long Commentary 20:19Shemot Long Commentary 32:27Shemot Short Commentary 32:19Shemot Long Commentary 32:20About R. Avraham ibn Ezra RadakMelakhim I 12:28About R. David Kimchi, CassutoShemot 32:1Shemot 32:4About Prof. Umberto Cassuto,

Why does Moshe's delay spur the sin?

• R. Yehuda HaLevi asserts that when Moshe ascended the mountain, he was supposed to return with the Tablets and Ark which would serve as a tangible object to which the nation could direct their service to Hashem. Since the nation was used to people who worshiped their gods via idols, they, too, felt a need for some concrete representation of God's presence, and greatly anticipated Moshe's descent.²²  However, when forty days passed they feared that Moshe would never return,²³ and decided to create their own physical symbol of Hashem instead.
• Cassuto explains similarly but suggests that the nation looked to create a throne for Hashem's providence, similar to the role played by the Keruvim (cherubs) in the Mishkan.²⁴ 

Why a calf?

• Image of Hashem seen at Sinai – Lekach TovShemot 32:4About R. Toviah b. Eliezer posits that the people chose a calf since that was the image of Hashem that they saw at Sinai.²⁵  R"A Bazak²⁶ supports this idea by connecting the nation's vision of "מַעֲשֵׂה לִבְנַת הַסַּפִּיר" with Yechezkel's prophecy of  "מַרְאֵה אֶבֶן סַפִּיר".‎²⁷  There Yechezkel describes the four headed creature that he sees as having "the legs of a calf" ("וְכַף רַגְלֵיהֶם כְּכַף רֶגֶל עֵגֶל"), suggesting that at Sinai, too, the people saw a calf.
• Hashem's choice of "throne" – R" A Bazak points to the parallel verses in Yechezkel 1:10 and 10:14 to prove that a "שור" is the same form known elsewhere as  "כרובים".‎²⁸  If so, in making a throne for Hashem the people chose the same image that Hashem Himself had designated for his "throne" in the Mishkan.²⁹ 
• Convention of the time – Throughout the Ancient Near East, deities were often depicted as standing on pedestals of beasts, usually a bull or lion.³⁰ Aharon might have simply copied the standard artistic convention, with the important difference of not adding any image of Hashem Himself atop the pedestal.

Sinning so soon after Matan Torah – According to this approach, Hashem's revelation at Mt. Sinai might itself have contributed to the sin.  The experience left the nation with a desire for continued connection. Having heard Hashem's voice, they had a need for a more tangible expression of His presence.

Aharon's role – This approach is largely motivated by a desire to defend Aharon and explain why he was not deserving of punishment.  As such, it presents him as acting in the name of Hashem throughout, making the calf with the sole intention of using it to serve Hashem. R. Kasher³¹ portrays him as making an understandable mistake; if Keruvim were allowed in the Mishkan, Aharon thought that they or their equivalent should be allowed outside as well.  R. Kasher³² even suggests that the prohibition "לֹא תַעֲשׂוּן אִתִּי אֱלֹהֵי כֶסֶף" found at the end of Shemot 20 is written out of place and was only given in the aftermath of and as a corrective to Aharon's error.³³

"עֲשֵׂה לָנוּ אֱלֹהִים" – These sources understand the word "אֱלֹהִים" to refer to Hashem.  The people were not requesting that Aharon create a new deity, but a vehicle through which they could access Hashem.

"אֵלֶּה אֱלֹהֶיךָ יִשְׂרָאֵל אֲשֶׁר הֶעֱלוּךָ מֵאֶרֶץ מִצְרָיִם" – The people refer to the calf as the one who took them out of Egypt because the calf was representative of Hashem who did in fact do so.³⁴

"חַג לַי"י מָחָר" – As Aharon and the people never intended to worship anyone but Hashem, Aharon naturally announced that there would be a feast for Hashem tomorrow.

Offering sacrifices – Ibn Ezra explains that the sacrifices were intended not for the calf but Hashem.³⁵

Severity of punishment – If the people were acting for Hashem and not intending any disloyalty to Him, it is not clear why Hashem would desire to annihilate the nation.  As a result, these sources all suggest that despite the positive intentions, people did end up worshiping the calf itself.  It was this minority that led to Hashem's anger.³⁶

"וַיָּמִירוּ אֶת כְּבוֹדָם בְּתַבְנִית שׁוֹר" – This approach would suggest that this verse is referring to those members of the nation who forgot that the calf was supposed to represent Hashem and viewed it as a deity in its own right.

Breaking of the Luchot

• A lesson to the nation – This approach might claim that Moshe realized that before bringing another concrete symbol of Hashem's presence to the people, he needed to make sure they recognized that it was just a symbol, and not itself worthy of worship.  Destroying the tablets was a lesson to the people, dispelling any notion that it was a power on its own.
• Nullifying the covenant – Since the nation transgressed one of the conditions of the covenant, "לֹא תַעֲשֶׂה לְךָ פֶסֶל וְכׇל תְּמוּנָה", they voided the covenant as a whole.³⁷

Drinking of the calf's ashes – Ibn Ezra, like Rashi above, asserts that this was similar to the test of the suspected adulteress (Sotah).  Since it would have been impossible for the Levites to distinguish which of the worshipers acted for idolatry and which for Hashem, the water tested and marked the former.

Biblical parallels – Cassuto compares this sin to the calves set up by Yerovam,³⁸ which he claims were also originally meant only to represent Hashem's presence. The Efod established by Gidon³⁹ was similarly intended only to remind the people that Hashem was their true King.  In both cases, however, with time the people mistook the representation of Hashem for an alternative god and began to worship it.⁴⁰

Difference between the Keruvim/Ark and calf – The Kuzari suggests that the only difference between the two is that one was commanded by Hashem, and thus legitimate, while the other was not, and thus prohibited.  One might add that Hashem did not fear lest the people come to worship the ark/keruvim since they were hidden away from the public eye.  Cassuto (in contrast to R. Bazak above) further asserts that the Keruvim were intentionally made as fantastical rather than realistic creatures to safeguard against the people worshiping them as deities.

Purpose of the mishkan – This approach might suggest that the sin confirmed the need for a Mishkan as a physical symbol of Hashem's presence, but also the necessity for it to be structured in a way that would distance the people from coming to mistake it for Hashem or an alternative god.

People's perception of Moshe

Aharon's self defense

Guide in the Wilderness

Bereft of Moshe's leadership and his connection to the Divine, the people looked for an alternative to guide them in the wilderness.  Their sin related to black magic rather than idolatry.

Sources:Ibn EzraShemot Long Commentary 32:1Shemot Long Commentary 32:27Shemot Short Commentary 32:1Shemot Short Commentary 32:4Shemot Short Commentary 32:19Shemot Long Commentary 32:20About R. Avraham ibn Ezra, Rashbam,Shemot 32:1-4About R. Shemuel b. Meir R. Yosef Bekhor ShorShemot 32:1-8Shemot 32:20Shemot 32:25-26Shemot 33:7Shemot 34:30About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor, RambanShemot 32:1About R. Moshe b. Nachman, RalbagShemot Beur HaParashah 31:18Shemot Beur HaParashah 32:1About R. Levi b. Gershom, AbarbanelShemot 32:1-7About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel, R. Eliezer AshkenaziMa'asei Hashem Ma'asei Torah 11Ma'asei Hashem Ma'asei Torah 12About R. Eliezer Ashkenazi (Ma'asei Hashem), ShadalShemot 32:4Shemot 32:8-9Shemot 32:27About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto,

Why does Moshe's delay spur the sin? According to these sources, the connection between Moshe's delay and the desire to make a replacement is obvious.  Moshe's prolonged absence⁴¹ led the people to conclude that he was never to return, prompting them to look for a substitute to lead them.⁴²

Perceptions of Moshe – These sources suggest a variety of possibilities regarding the people's perceptions of Moshe.  Each could have potentially played a role in their actions:

• Moshe the prophet – Ramban assumes that the people viewed Moshe as a  prophet with special access to the Divine, giving him the ability to perform miracles and knowledge of their future path.  Without such access, they felt lost, leading them to look for an alternative "איש אלהים".
• Moshe the magician – Abarbanel posits that throughout their travels, the nation constantly doubted Hashem and even attributed the Exodus to Moshe and Aharon rather than Him.  They assumed that Moshe on his own had special powers to work miracles.  Thus, with his absence, they asked Aharon, whom they thought knew Moshe's secrets, to create a different being which might call on similar powers.
• Moshe the fraud – R. Ashkenazi, in contrast, asserts that the people did not doubt Hashem but rather Moshe.  Aware of the prophecy that they were supposed to be in Egypt for 400 years, they worried that the early Exodus was proof that Moshe was not sent by Hashem but rather that he was acting on his own.  As such, they took his disappearance as proof that he must not have been Hashem's messenger, and might have been happy to replace him.

"עֲשֵׂה לָנוּ אֱלֹהִים אֲשֶׁר יֵלְכוּ לְפָנֵינוּ" – Though all these sources agree that the people were looking for something to guide and literally "go before them" in the wilderness, they differ regarding the nature of the guide requested, and hence of the meaning of the word "אֱלֹהִים":

• Human replacement – R. Yosef Bekhor Shor posits that the nation requested a human alternative to Moshe, and that "אֱלֹהִים" here takes its secular connotation of judge or leader.⁴³  It was Aharon who decided to create an object instead of appointing a person.
• Object of supernatural powers – Ralbag and Abarbanel⁴⁴ maintain that the Children of Israel requested a talisman which could foretell the future, and the word "אֱלֹהִים" refers to something with supernatural abilities.
• Replacement for the Aron – R. Eliezer Ashkenazi posits Moshe had promised to bring them an ark whose job would be to guide them until they reached settled lands.⁴⁵  It was this that they wished to replace.  According to him, "אֱלֹהִים" might be short for "ארון אלהים", or simply means guide.

Why a calf rather than a person?

• Aharon's initiative – According to R"Y Bekhor Shor it was Aharon's idea to create an inanimate leader rather than appoint a human one.⁴⁶ He feared that the people would be quick to switch their allegiance to a different human, leading to fighting when Moshe returned.  However, if he made a golden form without any powers, as soon as Moshe returned they would abandon it and return to Moshe.
• Nation's Initiative - Abarbanel, in contrast, maintains that the people specifically asked for an immobile object that could invoke heavenly powers, rather than a human, since humans are mortal and might disappear, as proven by Moshe.  He suggests that they might have chosen a bull as that was the astrological sign following that of the ram which was held sacred by Egypt and that it might have been through it that Moshe defeated Egypt.

"אֵלֶּה אֱלֹהֶיךָ יִשְׂרָאֵל אֲשֶׁר הֶעֱלוּךָ מֵאֶרֶץ מִצְרָיִם"

• Abarbanel asserts that the people did not believe that the calf they had just made actually took them out of Egypt, but rather that a form similar to it might have been the source of Moshe's powers that enabled him to successfully take the people out.
• Ibn Ezra suggests instead that the people mean that this form is replacing he who took them out of Egypt.

"חַג לַי"י מָחָר" – R"Y Bekhor Shor suggests that Aharon was announcing that the next day when they would inaugurate their new leader, they would have a feast for Hashem to thank Him for it.

Offering sacrifices, feasting and "צחוק"

• For Hashem –  R"Y Bekhor Shor maintains that the sacrifices were for Hashem's honor, a natural part of any inaugural ceremony.  He compares it to the celebration when Shaul was kinged, which was similarly accompanied by sacrifices and happiness (the "צחוק" of our verse).
• For idolatry– Ibn Ezra, Ralbag and Abarbanel, in contrast, all assert that part of the nation erred and began to worship the calf as a deity, bowing and sacrificing to it.

Breaking of the Luchot

• Intentional – Shadal posits that Moshe might have wanted to shock the nation back to their senses, while Ralbag suggests that this was a nullification of the covenant since people had turned the calf into a deity.
• Unintentional - Rashbam, in contrast, asserts that upon seeing the calf Moshe's strength left him and he dropped the tablets.⁴⁷  E. Touitou⁴⁸ suggests that Rashbam's somewhat difficult read of the verse⁴⁹ might have polemical motivations.  Christians understood that the due to the sin, the Sinai Covenant was nullified and subsequent commandments were given to punish the nation for their betrayal of Hashem.  As such, Rashbam goes out of his way to show that the sin was not a rejection of Hashem and that it did not involve breaking the covenant.

Drinking of the calf's ashes

• R"Y Bekhor Shor posits that Moshe did not actively give the nation of the ashes to drink.  He had simply sprinkled the calf's remians in the water to dispose of them, but since this wadi was the nation's water source while in Sinai they ended up drinking.
• –

Aharon's role

Sinning so soon after Matan Torah – According to this approach, the people's request for a calf was not a betrayal of Hashem at all and was a transgression in the realm of interpersonal relations  than beliefs.⁵⁰

Severity of punishment

• Zealous for Moshe's honor – According to R"Y Bekhor Shor Hashem wanted to avenge Moshe's honor
• Angry at idolaters

"וַיָּמִירוּ אֶת כְּבוֹדָם בְּתַבְנִית שׁוֹר"

Biblical parallels

Polemical motivations

Combination

As the nation was not a homogeneous group, it is possible that while some people viewed the calf as an alternative god, others believed that it was simply a tangible representation of Hashem and yet others looked to it to guide them in their travels.

¹ See Pirkei de Rabbi Eliezer who claims that they "forgot Hashem".

² R. Yochanan in Bavli Sanhedrin points to the plural form of the statement, "אֵלֶּה אֱלֹהֶיךָ יִשְׂרָאֵל אֲשֶׁר הֶעֱלוּךָ מֵאֶרֶץ מִצְרָיִם" to prove that the people still believed in Hashem, but had just added another god to their pantheon.  R. Shimon b. Yochai, in contrast, says the plural form does not lessen the sin's severity but rather intensifies it, as it implies that the nation desired multiple gods even beyond the calf.  See Rashi who explains similarly, but picks up on the plural form of the verb "יֵלְכוּ" in the pharse "עֲשֵׂה לָנוּ אֱלֹהִים אֲשֶׁר יֵלְכוּ לְפָנֵינוּ".

³ Cf. Rashi who asserts that the Satan had brought chaos and darkness to the world, leading the people to conclude that Moshe had died.

⁴ R. Avraham b. HaRambam suggests that Hashem calls the nation an "עַם קְשֵׁה עֹרֶף" because they had turned back towards the idolatry of Egypt.

⁵ According to Rashi, Aharon had no intention of making a calf specifically but the  mixed multitudes which had joined from Egypt (הערב רב) used their magic to make this form.

⁶ Cf. Hoil Moshe who connects the choice to Apis, the bull-deity of Egypt.

⁷ Though this is not mentioned in the narrator's description of the event, when Hashem tells Moshe what the people have done, he includes their bowing.

⁸ He compares it to the same term found in Bereshit 39:17 whose context suggests that it refers to sexual play.

⁹ One could similarly say that the tablets were representative of the covenant between the nation and Hashem; once the people transgressed its conditions, the covenant was nullified.

¹⁰ According to Rashi drinking the water actually caused the deaths of those who transgressed, but there were no witnesses to their deeds. The Levites, in contrast, punished those who acted in front of witnesses and with warning, according to judicial law.

¹¹ See Ramban.

¹² See Melakhim II 10:18-28.

¹³ R. Saadia questions why, then, does Hashem get angry at Aharon when Yehu's actions were praised, and answers that Aharon should not have pushed off the sacrifices, waiting for Moshe, but rather should have immediately tested and punished.

¹⁴ Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer even asserts that the tactic should have worked since the women refused to hand over their jewelry and even told their husbands that they were planning on building something with no power to save.  The husbands, however, did not listen and gave of their own jewelry.

¹⁵ In fact, opponents of this approach point to Aharon's role and lack of punishment, as proof that the sin could not have been one of belief in other gods.

¹⁶ See Selection of the Priests and Levites for different understandings of when Aharon was appointed priest, before or after the sin.

¹⁷ Cf. Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer which has the Satan play this role.  The midrash points to the verse in Tehillim 106 which describes the calf as "תַבְנִית שׁוֹר אֹכֵל עֵשֶׂב" to show that they enabled it to eat.

¹⁸ As further support, Rashi also points to Hashem's choice of language when speaking to Moshe about the nation: "כִּי שִׁחֵת עַמְּךָ".  He explains that Hashem was chastising Moshe for having accepted the Erev Rav into the nation; it was only "Moshe's nation" that sinned, not Hashem's.  R. Avraham b. HaRambam similarly claims that Hashem pointed to the "אספסוף" as being n Moshe's charge.

¹⁹ For more about the people's beliefs while in Egypt, see Religious Identity in Egypt.

²⁰ See N. Leibowitz, עיונים חדשים בספר שמות (Jerusalem, ):399-400, who develops this idea.  See also R. Bachya regarding the request to leave Egypt or  A Three Day Journey,  who claims that originally Hashem had planed on gradually moving the nation into belief of Hashem, knowing that they were not ready.

²¹ According to Rashi, these were the people who had been warned and whose actions had been viewed by two witnesses.

²² For elaboration, see Purpose of the Mishkan.

²³ R. Yehuda HaLevi points out that the people might have thought that Moshe was supposed to return within a day or two. Seeing that Moshe had not taken any food with him and that weeks had passed, they naturally concluded the worst.

²⁴ Just as the Keruvim were where Hashem's presence descended, the calf would serve as a pedestal for His glory.

²⁵ In Shemot 24 it says, "וַיִּרְאוּ אֵת אֱלֹהֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל וְתַחַת רַגְלָיו כְּמַעֲשֵׂה לִבְנַת הַסַּפִּיר" which Lekach Tov assumes refers to the legs of angels which resemble the feet of calves.

²⁶ See his article, "The Ideological Basis of the Sin of the Golden Calf."

²⁷ See Yechezkel 1.

²⁸ Yechezkel 1:10 lists the four faces of the beast of Yechezkel's vision as being man, lion, ox, and eagle. The parallel verse in 10:14 lists, cherub, lion, man and eagle, suggesting that the ox and cherub must be synonymous. Cf. Cassuto below who, in contrast, distinguishes between the form of the cherubs and that of the calf, claiming that the former were fantastical creatures. It was for this very reason that they were allowed in the Mishkan; they could not be mistaken for a real animal which could eventually come to be worshiped in place of Hashem.

²⁹ The entire vision in Yechezkel also suggests that the Keruvim were meant to be Hashem's "chariot", carrying His presence.

³⁰ See N. Sarna, Exploring Exodus (New York, 1996): 217-219 and the sources cited there.

³¹ See the citation in the above note.

³² See the NetzivShemot 32:2About R. Naftali Tzvi Yehuda Berlin who precedes him in this defense.

³³ Cf. Ibn Ezra  who asserts that this was the command that Aharon and the people transgressed in creating the calf.

³⁴ Cassuto also raises the possibility that despite the original intentions, at some point many of the people mistook the calf for an actual god. It was these people who cried, "אֵלֶּה אֱלֹהֶיךָ יִשְׂרָאֵל אֲשֶׁר הֶעֱלוּךָ מֵאֶרֶץ מִצְרָיִם".  Their plural language suggests that although they did not forget Hashem, they thought that the calf, too, deserved to be worshiped in its own right.

³⁵ He adds that nonetheless some of the people erred and viewed the calf itself as a deity and began to sacrifice to it. See Cassuto as well.

³⁶ The Kuzari points out that really this number only amounted to 3,000 from amongst the 600,000, those killed by the Levites.  [He apparently understands that the plague mentioned at the end of the chapter refers back to the actions of the Levites, and that there were no other casualties.]  Moreover, Hashem did not abandon the nation; the manna continued to fall and the cloud to protect them.

³⁷ See Ibn Ezra and Cassuto.  Ibn Ezra also posits that Moshe might have smashed the tablets in his zealous anger over the sin, or as a sign that the nuptials between Israel and Hashem were broken.  This fits with the position that part of of the nation actively committed idolatry

³⁸ See Melakhim I 12:28-30.

³⁹ See Shofetim 8:23-27.

⁴⁰ The bronze serpent created by Moshe also eventually became a stumbling block, with the people sacrificing to it throughout the monarchic period.  See Bemidbar 21:4-9 and Melakhim II 18:4.

⁴¹ Ibn Ezra and others in his wake points out that the people did not know how long Moshe was supposed to stay on the mountain.  In the midst of the wilderness, his long absence would have easily been cause for anxiety and lead to the natural conclusion that he might have died.

⁴² These sources point out that this approach best explains why the reason given by the nation for their request is "כִּי זֶה מֹשֶׁה הָאִישׁ... לֹא יָדַעְנוּ מֶה הָיָה לוֹ".  There is a direct link between the missing Moshe and the replacement asked for.

⁴³

R"Y Bekhor Shor points to the word's usage in Shemot 7:1or Shemot 22:8.  Cf. Ramban who posits that the people were looking for something to act as an "איש אלהים".  According to him, however, they never asked for a human to fulfill this role.

⁴⁴ See also RashbamShemot 32:1-4About R. Shemuel b. Meir

⁴⁵ See Bemidbar 10:33, וַאֲרוֹן בְּרִית י"י נֹסֵעַ לִפְנֵיהֶם דֶּרֶךְ שְׁלֹשֶׁת יָמִים לָתוּר לָהֶם מְנוּחָה.

⁴⁶ He does not explain why he chose the form of a calf rather than any other.

⁴⁷ undefined

⁴⁸ See "הפשטות המתחדשים בכל יום", (Jerusalem, 2003): 172-173.

⁴⁹ The verse says that Moshe "cast" the tablets which is a proactive, not unintentional, act.  Moreover, in the retelling in Devarim, Moshe says, "and I grasped the tablets and threw them" ("וָאֶתְפֹּשׂ בִּשְׁנֵי הַלֻּחֹת וָאַשְׁלִכֵם"), a description that further implies intent.

⁵⁰ Nonetheless, most  of these commentators do assert that a portion of the nation ended up actively worshiping the calf.  The idolatry they were accustomed to in Egypt was not easily forgotten, especially with the temptation of a graven image before them.