The Decalogue: Direct From Hashem or Via Moshe/2/he

עשרת הדברים: ישירות מהקב"ה או דרך משה?

גישות פרשניות

תרגום זה עדיין לא עבר ביקורת עורך

סקירה

בתורה מוצגים תיאורים רבים וסותרים להתגלותו של א-לוהים במעמד הר סיני, דבר המוליד גישות פרשניות שונות לשאלה - האם העם קיבל את עשרת הדיברות מא-לוהים או ממשה? לתשובות שונות אלו השלכות חשובות לגבי השאלה היותר גדולה - מהי משמעותה של ההתגלות בהר סיני?

בקצו האחד של הסקאלה, רמב"ם ורד"צ מתרכזים בפסוקים בהם משה מוצג כמתווך, וטוענים כי העם שמע רק את קולו של א-לוהים ולא הצליח להבין דבר ממילותיו. משה, אם כן, פעל כמתווך, או אולי כמתרגם, לכל עשרת הדברות. מגישות אלו נובע כי מטרת ההתגלות לא היתה להחדיר בעם אמונה בא-לוהים, אלא דווקא ללמדם להאמין בנבואותיו של משה. בקצו האחר של הסקאלה, רשב"ם, אבן עזרא, ואחרים, מתרכזים בתיאורי הפרשה כמפגש "פנים אל פנים". בהתאם לזאת, הם מניחים כי א-לוהים תקשר עם העם ישירות, והעביר להם את כל עשרת הדברות במטרה לחזק את אמונתם בו.

ישנן גם גישות הנמצאות בתווך שבין שני הקצוות הללו, כדוגמת רש"י, רמב"ן ואחרים. פרשנים אלו מחפשים לפתור את הסתירה שבין הפסוקים על ידי אימוץ עמדת ביניים, הגורסת כי ניתן ליצור הפרדה מסוימת בין הדברות. את שתי הדברות הראשונות, קיבלו העם ישירות מפיו של א-לוהים, אך הם נזקקו למשה על מנת שיסביר להם את השמונה הנותרות. רמב"ן מסביר כי היתה מטרה כפולה להתגלות בסיני. ההתגלות נועדה להחדיר אמונה בא-לוהים מצד אחד, ולהחדיר אמונה במשה  כנביא מצד שני. יסודות האמונה, אם כן, התקבלו ישירות מפי הא-לוהים, ושאר הדברות הועברו על ידי משה, אשר מנקודה זו ואילך שימש כמורה בכל הנוגע לחוקי האל.

לא הבינו אף דיבר

העם שמע רק את קולו של א-לוהים, אך לא הבין את מילותיו כלל. משה, אם כן, נצרך לתפקד כמתווך בין א-לוהים לבין העם במהלך כל עשרת הדברות. הפרשנים חלוקים בשאלה האם קולו של א-לוהים אותו שמע העם היה מיועד להם, או שהם רק שמעו את קולות השיחה שהתרחשה בין א-לוהים לבין משה.

שמעו את קולות שיחתו של א-לוהים עם משה

העם הקשיב כאשר א-לוהים אמר את עשרת הדברות למשה, אך הוא שמע רק את רחשי קולו של א-לוהים, ולא הצליח לפרש את מילותיו.

מקורות:

אולי רבי עקיבא במכילתא דרבי ישמעאלי״ט:י״טאודות מכילתא דרבי ישמעאל שמות¹, רמב"םרמב"ם הלכות יסודי התורה ז׳:ו׳רמב"ם הלכות יסודי התורה ח׳:א׳מורה נבוכים א':ל״זמורה נבוכים ב׳:ל״במורה נבוכים ב׳:ל״גאודות ר' משה בן מיימון² , ר' אברהם בן הרמב"םשמות כ׳:א׳אודות ר׳ אברהם בן הרמב״ם

מטרת הנבואה בסיני – רמב"םרמב"ם הלכות יסודי התורה ח׳:א׳אודות ר' משה בן מיימון סובר כי המטרה המרכזית של ההתגלות לא היתה להחדיר אמונה בא-לוהים³, אלא ללמד את העם להאמין בנבואותיו של משה. הדרך הטובה ביותר להשיג מטרה זו היתה לתת לעם לצפות בזמן שא-לוהים דיבר אל משה, מנהיגם. סברה זו מסתמכת על מילותיו של א-לוהים, "הִנֵּה אָנֹכִי בָּא אֵלֶיךָ בְּעַב הֶעָנָן בַּעֲבוּר יִשְׁמַע הָעָם בְּדַבְּרִי עִמָּךְ וְגַם בְּךָ יַאֲמִינוּ לְעוֹלָם".

נבואה להמונים – עמדתו של רמב"ם יונקת מאמונתו כי נבואה שמיועדת לכולם באופן שווה, אינה אפשרית, ולדעתו העם לא היה מוכן או מסוגל להבין את א-לוהים. אולם, רמב"ם אינו פוסל את האפשרות כי אנשים מסוימים, כדוגמת אהרון ובניו, יכלו להבין יותר מהנאמר, בהתאם לרמתם הרוחנית.

תפקידו של משה – מאחר והעם לא היה ברמה נבואית גבוהה מספיק בכדי להבין את א-לוהים, א-לוהים דיבר רק למשה, אשר לאחר מכן העביר את דבריו של א-לוהים לעם. 

"פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" – ביטוי זה מקשה במיוחד על עמדה זו, מכיוון שעל פי פרשנים אלו, לא התרחש מפגש "פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" כלל, זאת מאחר והעם רק הקשיב כשא-לוהים דיבר אל משה ואפילו אז, הוא לא הצליח להבין את פשר מילותיו.⁴ רמב"ם מסביר כי המילים "פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" מתייחסים לתחושת הבהירות אשר אפיינה את החוויה של העם, אשר תפסו את א-לוהים ללא תיווך של מלאך.⁵ כך, אף כי העם רק שמע את קולו של א-לוהים, הקול נשמע ישירות, ולא דרך שליח. במובן זה, ניתן לכנות את המפגש "פָּנִים בְּפָנִים".

"אָנֹכִי עֹמֵד בֵּין ה' וּבֵינֵיכֶם" – פסוק זה מובן בפשוטו, כמתייחס לתפקידו של משה כמתווך במהלך מתן הדברות עצמן.

"בַּעֲבוּר יִשְׁמַע הָעָם בְּדַבְּרִי עִמָּךְ" – פסוק זה תומך בעמדה המוצגת, שכן אין כאן שום התייחסות לכוונה כלשהי של א-לוהים לדבר ישירות אל העם, אלא רק שהם יקשיבו בעוד א-לוהים מדבר אל משה.

"קוֹל דְּבָרִים אַתֶּם שֹׁמְעִים" – כדי לתמוך בעמדתם, הפרשנים מציינים כי בפסוקים רבים בספר דברים אשר מתארים את ההתגלות, ישנן התייחסויות חוזרות ונשנות לקולות שהעם שמע, אך לא למילים כלשהן. ראו דברים ד׳:יב', ד׳:ל״ג-ל״ו, ה׳:י״ט-כ״ב⁶

"מֹשֶׁה יְדַבֵּר וְהָאֱלֹהִים יַעֲנֶנּוּ בְקוֹל" – רמב"ם מציע כי מילים אלו מתייחסות לתפקיד שהוטל על משה במהלך מתן הדברות, להעביר אל העם כל אחת מן הדברות, בדיוק כפי ששמע אותה מפי הא-לוהים. 

"וַיֵּרֶד מֹשֶׁה אֶל הָעָם וַיֹּאמֶר אֲלֵהֶם" – על פי גישה זו, פסוק זה מהווה הקדמה למתן עשרת הדברות מפי משה, מהפסוק הבא ואילך.⁷

"וַיְדַבֵּר אֱלֹהִים אֵת כָּל הַדְּבָרִים" – רמב"ם מניח כי אף שהדבר לא נאמר מפורשות, משה הנו קהל היעד בפסוק זה, ואליו א-לוהים דיבר את כל הדברים. 

"דַּבֵּר אַתָּה עִמָּנוּ וְנִשְׁמָעָה" – These sources do not address the issue of the nation's fear but would likely explain that the sound of Hashem's voice alone was enough to scare the people. Thus, after the giving of the Decalogue, they requested that in the future Moshe receive Hashem's words in private.  Had the nation not been fearful, perhaps all communications between Hashem and Moshe would have been overheard by the nation.

Singular form – Rambam explains that since Hashem was speaking just to Moshe, He used the singular ("לְךָ", "עָשִׂיתָ", "תִּגְנֹב" etc.), rather than the plural which might have been expected if the speech was aimed at all of the Israelites.

Switch from 1st to 3rd person – This approach would likely attribute the switch from first to third person to literary variation and not give it any additional significance.⁸

"אנכי ולא יהיה לך מפי הגבורה שמענום" – Rambam explains this statement of Chazal to mean only that the nation was able to on their own arrive at an understanding of the first two commandments, without any need for Moshe to provide an explanation.

Heard Voice Directly

Hashem spoke to the people directly, but due to their distance, they could make out only a voice and not distinct words.

מקורות: R. D"Z HoffmannShemot 19:7-9Shemot 20:1Devarim 5:5About R. David Zvi Hoffmann

Moshe's role – Since the people were not sanctified enough to come very close to Hashem they stood further away than Moshe.  Thus, although Hashem addressed His words to all, Moshe needed to act as a translator to relay and explain what the nation could not hear or comprehend.⁹

Purpose of Sinaitic revelation – As Hashem could have created a scenario in which all the people could understand Him despite their distance, R. D"Z Hoffmann's approach is logical only if one posits that Hashem intentionally positioned Moshe closer, requiring him to act as translator, while still addressing His words to all. This ensured that the people would recognize Moshe's stature as prophet, but simultaneously connected them to Hashem and bolstered their belief in Him.

Prophecy for the masses – R. D"Z Hoffmann suggests that the people were at a lower level of sanctity than Moshe.  This necessitated a greater distance from Hashem and resulted in reduced prophetic capabilities.

"פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" – R. D"Z Hoffmann would assert that the encounter was considered "face to face" since Hashem was addressing Himself to the nation as a whole and not just to Moshe.

"אָנֹכִי עֹמֵד בֵּין ה' וּבֵינֵיכֶם" – This verse is understood simply to refer to Moshe's role as a middleman, both in terms of his physical positioning on the mountain in between Hashem and the nation, as well as his duties as translator during the delivering of the Decalogue.

"בַּעֲבוּר יִשְׁמַע הָעָם בְּדַבְּרִי עִמָּךְ" – According to R. D"Z Hoffmann, Hashem is telling Moshe that He will appear to him in the presence of the entire nation so that they will no longer doubt his prophecy.  This, though, does not insinuate that Hashem did not also direct His words at the rest of the people, but more simply that Moshe's positioning boosted the nation's faith in him.

"קוֹל דְּבָרִים אַתֶּם שֹׁמְעִים" – R. D"Z Hoffmann brings support for the idea that the nation did not comprehend Hashem's words from the repeated emphasis on having heard His voice rather than His words. See Devarim 4:12, 4:33-36, and 5:19-22.¹⁰

"מֹשֶׁה יְדַבֵּר וְהָאֱלֹהִים יַעֲנֶנּוּ בְקוֹל" – According to R. Hoffmann, this verse refers to Moshe's dialogue with Hashem in Shemot 19:19-25 and not to the Decalogue.  Only when relaying the warnings is there a conversation in which Hashem responds to Moshe.  During the revelation itself, Moshe simply repeated Hashem's words to the people, but Hashem's words were not a response to Moshe and would not be aptly described as "יַעֲנֶנּוּ בְקוֹל‏‎".¹¹

"וַיֵּרֶד מֹשֶׁה אֶל הָעָם וַיֹּאמֶר אֲלֵהֶם" – R. D"Z Hoffmann asserts that this verse refers to transmitting Hashem's warnings to the nation, and not to the Decalogue.

"וַיְדַבֵּר אֱלֹהִים אֵת כָּל הַדְּבָרִים" – According to R. D"Z Hoffmann, Hashem did communicate the entire Decalogue to the nation.  A go-between was necessary, though, to fully understand what He said.

Singular form – R. D"Z Hoffmann would likely attribute no special significance to the singular rather than plural formulation, as there are many instances in Torah where Hashem addresses the nation and refers to them as a singular unit.¹² Thus, this is not sufficient evidence that Hashem directed His words at Moshe alone.

The nation's fear – "דַּבֵּר אַתָּה עִמָּנוּ וְנִשְׁמָעָה" – R. D"Z Hoffmann assumes that this event occurred after the giving of the Decalogue and suggests that had the nation not been fearful, Hashem would have relayed the rest of the commandments to them as well.  He even raises the possibility that the original plan was that, after the Decalogue, the nation would approach and perhaps even ascend the mountain to partake in the sealing of the covenant over the commandments.

Switch from 1st to 3rd person – R. D"Z Hoffmann agrees with Ibn Ezra's view that the first person to third person switch is insignificant, as "משפט אנשי לשון הקודש לדבר ככה".

Understood All Ten

The nation understood the entire Decalogue from Hashem. This position subdivides regarding whether Hashem's words were aimed at the people or Moshe.

Overheard Words

Hashem's spoke to Moshe only, but He intended that the nation would listen in on this conversation.

מקורות: R. Saadia GaonCommentary Shemot 19:9-21, 20:1About R. Saadia Gaon,¹³ R. MaimonShemot 20:1 (cited by his grandson)About R. Avraham Maimonides

Purpose of Sinaitic revelation – This approach understands that the episode had a dual objective, to instill faith in Moshe as Hashem's messenger, and to inculcate belief in Hashem Himself.  The former was accomplished by having Hashem direct His words at Moshe and elevate him above the nation, while the latter was fulfilled when the people heard Hashem speak.

Prophecy for the masses – This approach assumes that all can prophesy if Hashem so desires, even without extensive preparation. R. Maimon, though, does qualify that each person experienced Hashem's words differently, as per their spiritual level.¹⁴

Moshe's role – R. Saadia asserts that, in addition to Moshe's unique positioning in being the addressee of Hashem's words, after each of Hashem's statements, Moshe repeated it to the people.¹⁵

"פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" – This phrase is somewhat difficult for this approach, since one would not normally refer to overheard speech as a "face to face" encounter. These commentators might explain that Moshe is simply saying that, despite the positioning, the nation understood Hashem's words clearly, as if the statements were said to them face to face.

"אָנֹכִי עֹמֵד בֵּין ה' וּבֵינֵיכֶם לְהַגִּיד לָכֶם אֶת דְּבַר ה'‏" – According to R. Saadia, the phrase refers to Moshe's role during the revelation itself, as Moshe literally stood between the nation and Hashem in order to repeat to them Hashem's words.¹⁶

"בַּעֲבוּר יִשְׁמַע הָעָם בְּדַבְּרִי עִמָּךְ" – R. Saadia explains this verse according to its simple reading. Hashem's speech was directed solely to Moshe and was only overheard by the rest of the people. Thus, the nation was able to hear God while simultaneously appreciating the greatness of Moshe.

"וַיְדַבֵּר אֱלֹהִים אֵת כָּל הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה" – R. Maimon suggests that the audience in this sentence is not explicit since Hashem's words were directed to all who were present, including Moshe, Aharon and the nation as a whole.  Hashem spoke to all (despite directing His words at Moshe).  This position might also point to the word "כָּל" as evidence that all ten utterances were said by Hashem to everyone.¹⁷

"מֹשֶׁה יְדַבֵּר וְהָאֱלֹהִים יַעֲנֶנּוּ בְקוֹל" – R. Saadia connects this verse to the above "בַּעֲבוּר יִשְׁמַע הָעָם בְּדַבְּרִי עִמָּךְ", suggesting that he thinks that it, too, refers to Hashem's speech during the Decalogue.¹⁸  He asserts that the verse comes to inform the reader that, to be heard over the loud blast of the shofar, both Moshe and Hashem needed to speak at a high volume.¹⁹  In contrast, R. Maimon, who does not assert that Moshe spoke at all during the Decalogue, might suggest that this refers to Moshe and Hashem's earlier conversation in verses 20-25.

The nation's fear – "דַּבֵּר אַתָּה עִמָּנוּ וְנִשְׁמָעָה" – According to this approach, this scene is recorded in chronological order, as it occurred only after Hashem finished relaying the entire Decalogue.

Switch from 1st to 3rd person – This position would agree with Ibn Ezra below that the switch in person is merely common variation in Tanakh and has no special significance.

Heard Words Directly

Hashem spoke directly to the people themselves, and they, not Moshe, were His target audience for the entire Decalogue.

מקורות: JosephusAntiquities 3:5:4 (89-90)About Josephus, the Sages in Shir HaShirim Rabbah1:2About Shir HaShirim Rabbah and Pesikta Rabbati22About Pesikta Rabbati, Tanchuma (Buber)Yitro 17About Tanchuma (Buber), R. Yehuda HaLevi1:87About R. Yehuda HaLevi, RashbamShemot 19:19Shemot 20:15About R. Shemuel b. Meir, Ibn EzraShemot Long Commentary 20:1Devarim 5:5About R. Avraham ibn Ezra, RalbagShemot 19:8-9Shemot 20:15Devarim 5:5About R. Levi b. Gershom, AbarbanelShemot 19-20, Questions 13-14Shemot 19:9Shemot 19:19Shemot 19:20-22Shemot 19:23Shemot 20About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel, ShadalShemot 19:9Shemot 19:19Shemot 19:24Shemot 20:1About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto

Purpose of Sinaitic revelation

• This position highlights the goal of teaching the nation to believe in Hashem, as per the verse in Devarim, "אַתָּה הָרְאֵתָ לָדַעַת כִּי ה' הוּא הָאֱלֹהִים"‎.²⁰  Divine revelation to a mass audience was a unique event in world history and constitutes one of the strongest proofs of God's existence and the Torah's Divine origin.²¹
• According to Shadal, there may have been a dual purpose of instilling belief in both Hashem and Moshe. By hearing Hashem speak to Moshe before the actual revelation (see below), the nation recognized his prophetic stature, and by hearing Hashem on their own during revelation, they came to believe in God.

Prophecy for the masses – This approach assumes that anyone can prophesy, even without extended preparation.  Nonetheless, most of these commentators do limit the level of prophecy of the people. Thus, R. Yose b. R. Chanina in the Tanchuma says that each person grasped Hashem's word according to his own capabilities, while Ralbag and Abarbanel emphasize how the nation could only experience revelation via their physical senses, hearing a concrete (rather than mental) voice.²²

Moshe's role – According to these sources, Moshe did not play any significant role during the revelation. He, like the rest of the nation, simply listened to Hashem.  According to Abarbanel and Shadal, even physically, Moshe was positioned amidst the people and not higher up on the mountain.²³

"פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" – These commentators understand the phrase "פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" to refer to a direct, unmediated encounter.  R. Levi in the Tanchuma describes the experience as one in which each member of the nation felt as if Hashem was speaking to them personally.

"אָנֹכִי עֹמֵד בֵּין ה' וּבֵינֵיכֶם" – According to most of these commentators, these words refer to the mediating role that Moshe assumed after receiving the Decalogue, when giving over the rest of the commandments.²⁴ Alternatively, this position could posit, as does Ramban, that this refers to Moshe's role before the Decalogue when he acted as a go-between to relay all of Hashem's instructions to prepare the nation.

"וַיְדַבֵּר אֱלֹהִים אֵת כָּל הַדְּבָרִים הָאֵלֶּה" – Ibn Ezra supports the idea that Hashem communicated all the commandments directly from the text's usage of the words "‎‏כָּל הַדְּבָרִים"‎.²⁵ Shadal adds proofs from Devarim 4:12-13, 4:36, and 5:19-21, all of which emphasize how Hashem spoke (and did not produce merely the sound of a voice) to the nation.

"בַּעֲבוּר יִשְׁמַע הָעָם בְּדַבְּרִי עִמָּךְ"

• Spoke to all – According to Ibn Ezra, this verse does not insinuate that Hashem was to speak to Moshe alone, but only that when Hashem did speak to him (along with everyone else), his prophetic stature would be verified. The nation had doubted Moshe's prophecy, believing that if Hashem speaks to a person, he cannot live afterwards.  Thus, Hashem tells Moshe that when the nation sees Him speaking to Moshe during the giving of the Decalogue, they will finally recognize that their preconception was false.
• Change of plan – According to Ralbag and Abarbanel, Hashem originally told Moshe that He would speak to him alone and the nation would overhear, leading them to believe in Moshe's prophecy.  Moshe then clarified to Hashem that the nation preferred to not have a mediator, but rather desired a direct face to face encounter. As a result, Hashem acquiesced and changed the original plan.²⁶
• Before the Decalogue – Shadal asserts that this refers to the nation hearing Hashem's conversation with Moshe before the Decalogue.

The nation's fear - "דַּבֵּר אַתָּה עִמָּנוּ וְנִשְׁמָעָה" – According to these sources, this scene is found in its chronological place and only occurred after Hashem finished relaying the entire Decalogue.  According to Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, and Ralbag, were it not for this fear, Hashem would have relayed all 613 commandments to the people directly.²⁷

"כִּי יְרֵאתֶם מִפְּנֵי הָאֵשׁ וְלֹא עֲלִיתֶם בָּהָר"

• According to Ibn Ezra, Moshe is saying that the nation feared the fire, despite the fact that they did not go up the mountain.
• This position could also maintain that the original plan (had the nation not been overcome by fear) was to ascend the mountain after the giving of the Decalogue and to hear the rest of the 613 commandments from perhaps an even closer vantage point and at a higher spiritual level.²⁸

"מֹשֶׁה יְדַבֵּר וְהָאֱלֹהִים יַעֲנֶנּוּ בְקוֹל"

• Before the Decalogue – According to Ibn Ezra, Abarbanel, and Shadal,²⁹ this refers to the conversation between Moshe and Hashem before the giving of the Decalogue and, as such, provides no information regarding how Hashem delivered the commandments.³⁰
• Before and during – Ralbag maintains that the verse refers to Hashem's words both before and during the Decalogue.³¹  The mention of Moshe speaking refers only to the earlier conversation, but the fact that Hashem spoke "בְקוֹל" can refer to both.³²
• During the Decalogue – R. Eliezer suggests that that the verse refers to the Decalogue but is simply saying that before Hashem spoke to the nation, He waited for Moshe to tell Him that they were ready.³³

Switch from 1st to 3rd person – Ibn Ezra explains that it is common for the text to switch between first and third person, and he points to toher examples of this.³⁴ Ibn Ezra also explains the specific location of the switch, pointing out that after the nation accepted Hashem as their God in the first two commandments, He could then refer to Himself as the Israelites' God in third person.

Understood Only Two

The nation understood only two commandments directly from Hashem. These commentators disagree as to how the nation received the other eight:

Eight From Moshe

Due to the nation's fear, Hashem stopped speaking to them and instead spoke only to Moshe, who then relayed the final eight commandments to the nation.

מקורות: R. Hamnuna in Bavli MakkotMakkot 23b-24aAbout the Bavli, R. Yishmael in Bavli HorayotHorayot 23b-24aAbout the Bavli, R. Yehoshua in Shir HaShirim Rabbah1:2About Shir HaShirim Rabbah, Targum Pseudo-JonathanShemot 20:2About Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, R. Yehoshua b. Levi in Pesikta Rabbati22About Pesikta Rabbati, RashiShemot 19:19Shemot 20:1About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, R. Yosef Karacited by R. Yosef Bekhor Shor Shemot 20:1About R. Yosef Kara, R. Yosef Bekhor ShorShemot 20:1Devarim 5:4-5About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor³⁵

Moshe's role – Moshe acted as an intermediary for the last eight commandments, relaying them to the nation in Hashem's stead.

Why the split? According to these sources, the original plan was for Hashem to say the entire Decalogue directly to the nation.  After Hashem relayed the second commandment, though, the nation became frightened and requested that Moshe mediate.

"פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" – This phrase describes the first part of the encounter, when the nation heard and understood the first two commandments directly from Hashem.

"אָנֹכִי עֹמֵד בֵּין ה' וּבֵינֵיכֶם" – This clause refers to the second part of the experience when Moshe served as an intermediary to deliver the final eight commandments.

The nation's fear – "דַּבֵּר אַתָּה עִמָּנוּ וְנִשְׁמָעָה" – According to these sources, this episode took place in the middle of the Decalogue, between the second and third commandments.  It is recorded out of order so as not to interrupt the flow of the story and to keep the Decalogue in one continuous list.  R. Yosef Bekhor Shor adds that had it not been for their fear, the nation might have heard all the commandments in this manner.  Alternatively, Hashem had never planned on relaying more than these commandments regardless of the nation's fears.³⁶

"כִּי יְרֵאתֶם מִפְּנֵי הָאֵשׁ וְלֹא עֲלִיתֶם בָּהָר" – This verse seems to imply that, were it not for their fears, the people would have ascended the mountain.  This poses a difficulty for this approach which maintains that the people expressed their fears midway through the Decalogue, as at that point it was prohibited from ascending the mountain regardless of whether they were afraid.  Thus, this approach might need to explain, as Ibn Ezra above, that Moshe is saying that despite the fact that they did not ascend the mountain, they were still in fear.³⁷

Switch from 1st to 3rd person – R. Yosef Kara adduces support for this approach from the fact that the Decalogue switches from first person to third person immediately after the second commandment.  If this is when Moshe began to speak, the third person references to Hashem make sense.

"מֹשֶׁה יְדַבֵּר וְהָאֱלֹהִים יַעֲנֶנּוּ בְקוֹל" – Rashi explains that when Moshe relayed the eight commandments, Hashem gave Moshe's voice extra strength so that he could be heard.³⁸

"וַיְדַבֵּר אֱלֹהִים אֵת כָּל הַדְּבָרִים" – Ibn Ezra argues against this position from the word "כָּל" which suggests that there was no differentiation between the commandments.  Rashi explains that the verse comes to teach that, originally, Hashem said all ten commandments simultaneously and only afterwards distinguished each one.

"וַיְדַבֵּר אֱלֹהִים... לֵאמֹר" – Rashi might suggest that the audience of Hashem's words is left ambiguous, because there were two different, consecutive, audiences for the different sections of the Decalogue.  Hashem first spoke to the nation and then to Moshe alone.

"בַּעֲבוּר יִשְׁמַע הָעָם בְּדַבְּרִי עִמָּךְ" – This verse is difficult for these sources since they maintain that the original plan was not to speak to Moshe, but rather directly to the nation.  They could explain that this refers to the nation listening to Hashem's earlier conversation, when He instructs Moshe before the Decalogue.

Purpose of Sinaitic revelation – This position could posit that the revelation was aimed at instilling belief in Hashem, rather than in Moshe's prophecy.  It was only a concession to the people's fear that led Moshe to play any part at all.

Prophecy for the masses – These commentators assume that Hashem sometimes grants prophetic powers to the uninitiated.

Voice but No Words

Hashem communicated also the final eight commandments to the nation, but in these they discerned only His voice and needed Moshe to serve as an interpreter.

מקורות: RambanShemot 19:9Shemot 20:6Shemot 20:14Devarim 5:5About R. Moshe b. Nachman

Why the split? Ramban suggests that Hashem intentionally desired that Moshe explain the final commandments to the nation, thereby displaying his exalted prophetic status, but that He also wanted the nation to understand the first two from Him directly, as these relate to belief and serve as the basis for the rest of Torah.³⁹

"פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" – According to Ramban, the people heard the entire Decalogue "face to face", but only comprehended the first two commandments.

"אָנֹכִי עֹמֵד בֵּין ה' וּבֵינֵיכֶם" – This clause refers to Moshe's intermediary role during the second part of the encounter, when Moshe explained the final eight commandments.

Switch from 1st to 3rd person – To support the change of speaker, Ramban points to the fact that only the first two commandments speak of Hashem in first person.

"וַיְדַבֵּר אֱלֹהִים אֵת כָּל הַדְּבָרִים" – The word "כָּל" is what motivates Ramban to suggest that the nation actually heard all of the commandments (even if they did not comprehend all of them).

The nation's fear – "דַּבֵּר אַתָּה עִמָּנוּ וְנִשְׁמָעָה" – Ramban asserts that this took place before the Decalogue. Even before Hashem began to speak, the nation distanced themselves even further than required by the set boundary and requested that Moshe speak.⁴⁰  Ramban maintains that the similar description in Devarim which speaks of the elders conveying their fears refers to a different episode, which transpired after the Decalogue.  Assuming that Hashem intended to transmit the rest of the Torah in the same manner, the elders asked Moshe that he instead be an intermediary.  Hashem agreed since He had never intended to do otherwise.

"מֹשֶׁה יְדַבֵּר וְהָאֱלֹהִים יַעֲנֶנּוּ בְקוֹל" – Ramban maintains that these words refer to Moshe and Hashem's conversation during the three days of preparations for the revelation.⁴¹

"בַּעֲבוּר יִשְׁמַע הָעָם בְּדַבְּרִי עִמָּךְ" – According to Ramban, this refers to the Decalogue. Hashem tells Moshe that when the nation experiences prophecy and hears Hashem speak, they will finally recognize that it is Hashem who regularly speaks with Moshe.  This will lead them to believe in both.

Purpose of Sinaitic revelation – Revelation had a dual purpose, to instill belief in both Hashem and Moshe as His prophet.  The latter was necessary since it was to be Moshe's job to give over the rest of the commandments.

Prophecy for the masses – This approach assumes that one can prophesy even without extensive preparation, if Hashem so chooses.

¹ כך נדמה שרמב"ם מבין את מילותיו של ר' עקיבא. רד"צ, לעומתו, סובר כי מילותיו של ר' עקיבא מתייחסות לשיחה בין משה לא-לוהים אשר התרחשה לפני מתן הדברות, ולא למתן הדברות עצמן.

² נדמה כי רמב"ם סותר את עצמו בספרו "הלכות יסודי התורה". שם, רמב"ם מניח כי העם לא רק שמע אלא גם הבין את מילותיו של א-לוהים. הוא מתאר סיטואציה בה העם מקשיב לא-לוהים בעוד הוא אומר למשה "לך אמור להן כך וכך". מכאן משתמע כי העם שמע והבין את כל עשרת הדברות עוד בזמן שא-לוהים העביר אותם למשה. אולם, ר' יוסף אלבו בספרו "ספר העיקרים" מציג את הסיטואציה אותה תיאר רמב"ם מעט אחרת. ר' יוסף אלבו כותב כי העם שומע את א-לוהים אומר למשה רק "לך אמר להם שובו לכם לאהליכם", ולא שמע את כל עשרת הדברות. לפי גרסה זו לדבריו של הרמב"ם, הסתירה נפתרת.

³ לפי רמב"ם, אמונה בא-לוהים לא נרכשת על ידי חוויות נבואיות אלא רק על ידי שכנועים לוגיים. התגלות, אם כן, הכרחית רק על מנת להוכיח את כוחו הנבואי של משה ולא על מנת להוכיח את קיומו של א-לוהים.

⁴ אברבנאל מתייחס לקושי זה (ראו אבן כספי, דברים ה': ד'-ה'). הביטוי "פָּנִים אֶל פָּנִים" אינו מופיע בשום מקום אחר בתנ"ך, בעוד הביטוי "פָּנִים בְּפָנִים" מופיע כאשר א-לוהים מדבר אל משה (שמות ל"ג: י"א) וכאשר יעקב וגדעון פוגשים מלאכים (בראשית ל"ב:ל"א, שופטים ו':כ"ב).

⁵ ראו, ספורנו, דברים ה': ד'

⁶ כלולים כאן הביטויים: "קוֹל דְּבָרִים אַתֶּם שֹׁמְעִים", "הֲשָׁמַע עָם קוֹל אֱלֹהִים", "מִן הַשָּׁמַיִם הִשְׁמִיעֲךָ אֶת קֹלוֹ", "כְּשׇׁמְעֲכֶם אֶת הַקּוֹל", "וְאֶת קֹלוֹ שָׁמַעְנוּ"‏. יש לציין כי שד"ל משתמש בחלקים שונים של פסוקים רבים הכלולים כאן על מנת להוכיח כי א-לוהים דיבר ישירות אל העם. כך, לדוגמא, חרף העובדה כי העם מדבר על שמיעת קולו של א-לוהים, א-לוהים עצמו מקדים לדבריו את המילים: "וְאַשְׁמִעֵם אֶת דְּבָרָי". 

⁷ הפסוק היחיד אשר קוטע את הדברות, "וַיְדַבֵּר אֱלֹהִים אֵת כָּל הַדְּבָרִים", מפריד בין ציון שם הדובר לבין עשרת הדיברות עצמן. זאת מכיוון שהטקסט מנסה לספר לקורא כי גם א-לוהים וגם משה אמרו את עשרת הדברות (א-לוהים אמר אותן למשה, ולאחר מכן, משה אמר אותן לעם)

⁸ See Ibn Ezra below.

⁹ Moshe's role was somewhat akin to that of a teaching assistant in a large lecture hall.  It is unclear, though, why Hashem would not have simply spoken loudly and clearly enough for all to hear.  It therefore seems likely that the positioning was intentional. Hashem wanted to set up Moshe in the role of translator while still addressing the nation as a whole, thereby leading the nation to belief in both Hashem and Moshe.
It is possible, though, that R. D"Z Hoffmann is motivated more by textual concerns and the desire to make sense of the seemingly contradictory verses, than by conceptual issues.  His reading manages to harmonize between the verses which sound as if Hashem is speaking to the nation, those that present Moshe as mediator, and those that insinuate that only a voice was heard.

¹⁰ R. D"Z Hoffmann would explain the other verses which suggest that Hashem actually spoke to the nation (and did not merely emit a voice) to refer to the fact that Hashem did in fact address them, even if they did not comprehend what He said.

¹¹ Thus, though R. D"Z Hoffmann agrees with Rambam above that Moshe played a mediating role, due to textual reasons, he prefers not to adduce this verse as evidence.

¹² See, for instance, the commandments in Vayikra 19:13-19.

¹³ Only part of R. Saadia Gaon's commentary here is extant, making it difficult to completely reconstruct his position.

¹⁴ Cf. Rambam's position above.

¹⁵ Thus, the nation heard each commandment in the Decalogue twice, once from Hashem and once from Moshe.  We do not have the continuation of R. Saadia's commentary, where he explained the purpose of such a doubling.

¹⁶ Alternatively, the phrase means only that Moshe's positioning between the nation and Hashem is what enabled them to overhear Hashem's speech.  This might be the position of R. Maimon.

¹⁷ See Ibn Ezra below.

¹⁸ Ibn Ezra and Shadal understand that R.Saadia thinks that both verses refer to the scene before the giving of the Decalogue, when Hashem issues to Moshe the various warnings.  R. Saadia's comments to verse 9, though, clearly suggest that he assumes that the verse refers to the Decalogue itself.

¹⁹ According to him, both Moshe and Hashem were speaking since Moshe repeated each of Hashem's statements to the nation.  Since Moshe spoke second, though, one might have expected the verse to be written in the opposite order "ה' ידבר ומשה יעננו בקול".

²⁰ Shemot 19:9 seems to contradict this, explicitly stating that the goal was to establish faith in Moshe.  Ibn Ezra agrees that this, too, was accomplished when the nation learned that speaking to God does not automatically result in death, and that it was thus possible that Moshe had all along been communicating with Hashem. Ralbag and Abarbanel, in contrast, suggest that instilling faith in Moshe was only part of an original plan (where Hashem thought He would speak to Moshe and not directly to the nation) but that plan was then rejected.  See below for elaboration.

²¹ Cf. R. Yehuda HaLevi who makes a similar argument, though he emphasizes that the Divine revelation to the masses proved to the nation that humans have the ability to prophesy, leading them to believe in both Moshe and other future prophets.

²² Ralbag points out that this was in contrast to Moshe who heard the Decalogue "prophetically", using his mental facilities.

²³ This follows the approach found in Shemot Rabbah.

²⁴ Ibn Ezra and Abarbanel say this explicitly.  According to them, the phrase "בָּעֵת הַהִוא" (at that time) does not refer to the immediate period spoken of in the verse (the giving of the Decalogue) but rather some point afterwards.  See Chronological and Thematic Order for a discussion of the term's usage in Tanakh.
The Sages and Ralbag are more ambiguous.  They do not say explicitly that the words refer to relaying the other commandments, only that Moshe is referring to the conversation in which the people confess their fear and request that Moshe speak with them rather than Hashem.

²⁵ He argues against the position below which posits that only two commandments were transmitted directly by Hashem by pointing out that the word "‎‏כָּל" implies that there was no differentiation between the manner in which the commandments were relayed; all were from Hashem directly.

²⁶ The two commentators differ in the details of this theory.  Both are trying to solve the problem of the double "וַיַּגֵּד מֹשֶׁה אֶת דִּבְרֵי הָעָם אֶל ה'‏" and to understand what "words of the people" Moshe is relaying each time.  According to Ralbag, when the people told Moshe that "כֹּל אֲשֶׁר דִּבֶּר ה' נַעֲשֶׂה" he understood that they wanted a sign that would prove that it was Hashem who had spoken to Moshe all along, for then they were sure to adhere to his words.  Hashem, thus, suggested that they overhear Him speak to Moshe in the cloud.  Only then did Moshe realize that he had been mistaken and the nation had really requested to hear Hashem directly (thinking that if they hear Him, then they would surely observe His commandments).  This is consistent with Ralbag's general view of Moshe as fallible, especially with regards to his interactions with people. See Did Moshe Need Yitro's Advice?.
According to Abarbanel, in contrast, Moshe understood this all along.  When he first relayed the people's words to Hashem, though, he simply told Hashem that the people said they want to listen to Hashem's voice and if so, they will keep His covenant.  Hashem, thus responded that He will reveal Himself to Moshe with a physical voice (rather than giving him a mental prophecy) so that the nation can overhear.  Only then did Moshe clarify that the people really wanted to hear Hashem directly.

²⁷ Hashem's reaction to the fear, "הֵיטִיבוּ כׇּל אֲשֶׁר דִּבֵּרוּ... לֵךְ אֱמֹר לָהֶם שׁוּבוּ לָכֶם לְאׇהֳלֵיכֶם וְאַתָּה פֹּה עֲמֹד עִמָּדִי וַאֲדַבְּרָה אֵלֶיךָ אֵת כׇּל הַמִּצְוָה וְהַחֻקִּים וְהַמִּשְׁפָּטִים אֲשֶׁר תְּלַמְּדֵם" would support this supposition.  Hashem is apparently telling Moshe that he agrees with the nation, and that the new plan is that he should ascend the mountain to hear the rest of the laws.

²⁸ See R. D" Z Hoffmann above, who heads in this direction.  He understands the phrase, "בִּמְשֹׁךְ הַיֹּבֵל הֵמָּה יַעֲלוּ בָהָר" to mean that originally there was to be some call from the shofar to assemble the people to ascend the mountain. Such a blast is not mentioned because in the end the nation was too fearful and preferred not to hear any more from Hashem. Cf. R"M Leibtag, "Parshat Yitro - The Four Stages of Ma'amad Har Sinai" and R.Y Grossman, "פרשת יתרו - במשך היובל המה יעלו בהר" who also explain the phrase "בִּמְשֹׁךְ הַיֹּבֵל" not as a sign to indicate that Hashem's presence has left, but as a call for the nation to ascend the mountain in order to hear Hashem.  They suggest, though, that the original plan was to ascend the mountain so as to hear the Decalogue itself.

²⁹ Rashbam is not explicit but seems to agree.

³⁰ Ibn Ezra asserts that the verse is simply saying that Moshe did not fear from the thunder and continued to listen as Hashem spoke to him loudly over nature. Abarbanel, in contrast, assumes that the verse is relaying that this conversation between Hashem and Moshe was not a mental one, but was said in a physical voice, so that it could be heard by the nation as well.

³¹ Abarbanel claims that Ralbag assumes the verse refers only to the Decalogue, but in Ralbag's comments to verses 20-21 he says explicitly that all the warnings of those verses were given to Moshe and heard by the nation "בקול".

³² He assumes that the verse is coming to teach that Hashem conversed with Moshe prophetically, but simultaneously transmitted the message to the nation out loud (via a concrete voice rather than a mental prophecy).

³³ Thus, when Moshe spoke and gave the "go-ahead", Hashem replied with the ten commandments.

³⁴ See also Abarbanel who brings a whole list of verses as further proofs.

³⁵ This is how he explains the encounter in his comments on Devarim 5. In Shemot 20, though, he first suggests that the nation heard all ten commandments from Hashem and only afterwards brings the opinion that there were two stages.

³⁶ It should be noted that, in this aspect, this position is much more similar to the approach above that has the nation hear all ten commandments, than to Ramban below.  In contrast to Ramban, both these positions assume that at some point Hashem's original plan changed due to the nation's fear, disagreeing only regarding at which point the nation was fearful (after the second or tenth commandment).  In selecting between the possibilities, one position is motivated by the switch in speaker and the other by the placement of the scene depicting the fear.

³⁷ R"Y Bekhor Shor, in contrast, posits that Moshe is referring to a future ascent of the mountain, to hear the rest of the commandments.

³⁸ Accordingly, the phrase "יַעֲנֶנּוּ בְקוֹל" means that Hashem amplified the volume of Moshe's words, and not that He responded to Moshe.

³⁹ Thus, in contrast to the above position, Ramban asserts that this was the original plan.

⁴⁰ Moshe managed to calm them enough that they stood their ground and listened.

⁴¹ See Ibn Ezra and others above.  It is possible that he explains the verse in this manner, despite maintaining that Moshe did speak during the Decalogue, because the phrase assumes that Hashem responded to Moshe and not vice versa.