The Repentance of Nineveh

Exegetical Approaches

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Overview

Commentators debate the quality of Nineveh's repentance, with some holding it as a model to emulate and others finding it severely lacking. According to Bavli Taanit, the Ninevites modeled how to fully repent, not just through external signs of submission, but through real change and actions, going even further than the law demands. Sages in Yerushalmi Taanit, in contrast, find clues in the text to suggest that the people's repentance was only partial, full of defiance rather than sincere submission. Abarbanel similarly finds the people's repentance deficient, noting that there is no evidence in the chapter that the people returned to God or forsook idolatry. In his view, repentance and "return" without belief is an oxymoron. A last approach takes a middle position, suggesting that the city's penitence was indeed sincere, but problematic in that it was short-lived.

Full Repentance

The repentance of the people of Nineveh was sincere and worthy of emulation.

Sources:Bavli TaanitTaanit 16aAbout the Bavli, RadakYonah 3:5-10About R. David Kimchi, Ibn EzraYonah First Commentary 1:2Yonah First Commentary 3:6Yonah First Commentary 3:10About R. Avraham ibn Ezra, R. Eliezer of BeaugencyYonah 4About R. Eliezer of Beaugency, Hoil MosheYonah 3:6-8Yonah ConclusionAbout R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi

"...וַיַּרְא הָאֱלֹהִים... כִּי שָׁבוּ מִדַּרְכָּם הָרָעָה וַיִּנָּחֶם עַל הָרָעָה" – This verse is perhaps the best evidence that the repentance of the people was sincere and complete. The text says explicitly that they returned from their evil ways, and implies that it is for this reason that Hashem overturned the decree.

Sackcloth and fasting for animals – The Ninevites' inviting of their animals to join in their acts of penitence is meant to express the totality of their submission to God.¹  Several classical texts attest to other cases in which animals join in displays of mourning and prayer, suggesting that this was an accepted (and not farcical) method of displaying regret. See Judith 4:12-13 where man and animal alike oppress themselves and don sackcloth and Herodotus 9:24 where horses and pack animals participate in the the mourning of the Persians.

"וְיָשֻׁבוּ אִישׁ מִדַּרְכּוֹ הָרָעָה וּמִן הֶחָמָס אֲשֶׁר בְּכַפֵּיהֶם" – Shemuel in Bavli Taanit explains that the verse adds "אֲשֶׁר בְּכַפֵּיהֶם" to teach that the people went beyond the law to return all lost property (and not just its monetary equivalent), even breaking down the walls of their homes to return the original beams to their owners.

"וַיַּאֲמִינוּ אַנְשֵׁי נִינְוֵה בֵּאלֹהִים" – According to this approach, this verse might attest not only to the people's recognition of Hashem, but also to their forsaking of idolatry.²  In the aftermath of Yonah's call, they repented of sins related to both man and God, becoming monotheists.

"וַיַּרְא הָאֱלֹהִים אֶת מַעֲשֵׂיהֶם" – Bavli Taanit points to the people of Nineveh as a model to emulate since they did not suffice with outwards signs of submission (sackcloth and fasting) but actively changed their deeds, as attested to by this verse.

Hashem vs. Elokim – According to this position, the shift in names does not signify anything about the quality of the Ninevites' cry or their connection to God. It, instead, relates to the circumstances in which the characters of the book find themselves. The name Elokim is associated with God's attributes of justice and is, thus, appropriately used when speaking of Nineveh who stands at the brink of destruction.³ The name Hashem, which is associated with Hashem's attribute of kindness, on the other hand, is fitting when speaking of the sailor's turning to God after beings saved at sea and by Yonah in his prayer of thanksgiving, when saved by the fish.⁴

What led the people to listen to Yonah?

• Radak⁵ suggests that the boatmen had reached Nineveh and testified to the wonders that had happened to Yonah in the sea,⁶ leading the people to believe in him as a true prophet.
• Ibn Ezra, in contrast, learns from the description of Nineveh as an "עִיר גְּדוֹלָה לֵאלֹהִים", that the people of Nineveh had been monotheists all along.⁷  As such, when a prophet of Hashem came to speak to them, they believed in him.

Repentance from fear? It is possible that fear of destruction was the main catalyst for the people's change of ways, but as their penitence was sincere and accompanied by a real improvement in behavior, this is not viewed negatively. The motive is inconsequential in face of the positive results.

Why was Yonah upset? If Nineveh was a model of repentance and truly bettered themselves, it is not clear why Yonah should be upset after the success of his mission.  This approach might   suggest any of the following explanations: (See Why Did Yonah Disobey Hashem for discussion.)

• Concerns about Israel – According to Rashi, Ibn Ezra and Radak, Yonah was concerned lest the immediate repentance of Nineveh cast Israel in a negative light, as the Children of Israel had refused to change their ways despite numerous prophetic rebukes.
• Mistaken assumption – R. Eliezer of Beaugency suggests that Yonah had actually not known that the people of Nineveh had repented, having left the city immediately after delivering his prophecy.⁸  He, in fact, assumed that they did not change⁹ and was thus upset when he saw that Hashem had saved them regardless.
• Theological issues – Several modern scholars suggest that Yonah's misgivings had nothing to do with the quality of Nineveh's repentance, but with Hashem's system of justice as a whole. Yonah felt that repentance should not remove the need for retribution since justice requires that everyone receive their due. Atoning for or regretting one's actions should not change that

"וַאֲנִי לֹא אָחוּס עַל נִינְוֵה הָעִיר הַגְּדוֹלָה" – This approach suggests that this is only Hashem's secondary reason for saving the city, emphasized only to teach Yonah a lesson about mercy.

• R"E of Beaugency explains that since Yonah was upset about the possibility that Hashem might save the city even if they did not repent, Hashem tells him that even if that were the case (though it was not), Yonah should realize that mitigating circumstances might lead to forgiveness even without repentance.
• According to modern scholars,¹⁰ Hashem teaches Yonah that love might trump pure justice. Repentance removes the need for punishment because Hashem loves his creations and desires their survival.

Message of the book – According to this approach, one of the main messages of the book is the power of repentance. Everyone has the ability to change and avert punishment, even those whose deeds were so terrible that they otherwise deserved destruction.

Partial Penitence

The people of Nineveh did not repent fully.

Sources:Sages in Yerushalmi TaanitTaanit 2:1About the Yerushalmi, Abarbanel,Yonah 3:5-9About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel MalbimYonah Beur HaInyan 3:5-10About R. Meir Leibush Weiser

In what ways was the repentance lacking? These sources differ regarding what they find problematic about the city's repentance, finding hints to some deficiency in the people's actions in almost every verse :

• Only partial reparations – R. Yochanan learns from the word "וּמִן הֶחָמָס אֲשֶׁר בְּכַפֵּיהֶם" that the people returned only that which was in their hands, not objects which they had in their fields, treasure troves, or elsewhere.
• No rejection of idolatry – Abarbanel maintains that though the people repented of their deeds and changed their ways (וַיַּרְא הָאֱלֹהִים אֶת מַעֲשֵׂיהֶם / וְיָשֻׁבוּ אִישׁ מִדַּרְכּוֹ), they did not do so in the realm of belief. They never abandoned their idols to worship Hashem exclusively.
• Lack of submission – R. Shimon b. Chalafta claims that the phrase "וְיִקְרְאוּ אֶל אֱלֹהִים בְּחׇזְקָה" connotes a certain audacity and impertinence. He similarly views the animal's participation in the city's self-affliction as an attempt to force Hashem's hand. The people caused the animals to suffer,¹¹ telling Hashem, "if you have no mercy on us, we will have no mercy on them". Submission, not defiance, should accompany sincere repentance.

Sackcloth and fasting for animals – This position might further suggest that the inclusion of animals in the fasting and donning of sackcloth proves that the people focused on the wrong part of the repentance process.  Such external actions are meant to be only secondary, to serve as a means to the end goals of self-reflection, regret, and change of behavior. As animals are incapable of this internal process of change, the insistence that they join betrays a lack of understanding of what real repentance is.

"וַיַּאֲמִינוּ אַנְשֵׁי נִינְוֵה בֵּאלֹהִים" – Abarbanel claims this verse does not imply that the people rejected idolatry and became monotheists (in which case one would have expected a description of the destroying of idols and altars), only that they came to believe in the power of Hashem, and feared His decree.¹²

Hashem vs. Elokim – The chapter's continuous usage of the name Elohim, rather than Hashem, might support Abarbanel's claim.  While Elohim is a generic name for gods and can refer both to Hashem and to idols, Hashem is a proper name, referring to Hashem alone. The people of Nineveh believed in and cried to Elohim, but not to Hashem, because they viewed Him as one of many, not as a single, personal God.¹³

"...וַיַּרְא הָאֱלֹהִים... כִּי שָׁבוּ מִדַּרְכָּם הָרָעָה וַיִּנָּחֶם עַל הָרָעָה" – This verse is somewhat difficult for this approach as it implies that Hashem found nothing amiss about Nineveh's repentance:

• The sages in Yerushalmi Taanit might respond that the verse is saying only that the people's change of behavior (even if only partial and somewhat problematic) sufficed for Hashem to avert their punishment.
• As noted above, Abarbanel instead asserts that the verse supports his position for it speaks only of a change in deeds but not beliefs. Hashem revoked the decree as soon as people repented of their actions against their fellow man, even though they maintained their idolatrous thoughts.

Why was Yonah upset? If the people's repentance was lacking, and Hashem saved them nonetheless, one can understand Yonah's  frustration.

"וַאֲנִי לֹא אָחוּס עַל נִינְוֵה... אֲשֶׁר לֹא יָדַע בֵּין יְמִינוֹ לִשְׂמֹאלוֹ" – In these words Hashem explains to Yonah why He had saved the city despite the low quality of their repentance:

• Abarbanel asserts that Hashem explains to Yonah that the people of Nineveh, having never received the Torah, are like animals who do not know the difference between right and left.  They cannot be blamed for their idolatrous beliefs and therefore even though they repented only in the interpersonal sphere, that sufficed to avert the destruction.
• The sages in Yerushlami Taanit might explain similarly. Hashem tells Yonah that people don't know better and cannot be expected to repent fully. Therefore, even incomplete repentance is enough to evoke Hashem's love and lead to forgiveness.

Polemical motivations – Prof. E. Urbach¹⁴ suggests that the negative evaluation of the Ninevite's repentance by the sages in Yerushalmi Taanit might have a polemical backdrop. Christian leaders held Nineveh up as a model of repentance, contrasting it with Israel's intransigence¹⁵ and claiming that the contrast accounts for the rejection of Israel. Sages in Eretz Yisrael, thus, looked for clues in the text which might counter this reading of Nineveh.¹⁶

Temporary Change

Though the people repented sincerely, their penitence was short-lived.

Sources:Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer 4343About Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer, Yalkut ShiimoniYonah 3About Yalkut Shimoni

"וַיַּרְא הָאֱלֹהִים... כִּי שָׁבוּ מִדַּרְכָּם הָרָעָה" – This position takes this verse at face value, learning from it that the people of Nineveh repented sincerely.

Evidence of regression – Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer claims that the city returned to (and surpassed) its original wicked ways after a mere forty years, but there is no evidence in Sefer Yonah itself that the people did so. Sefer Nachum, however, devotes its three chapters to prophecies regarding the destruction of Nineveh, the "city of blood, full of lies and plunder".  By his time, the city had evidently returned to a life of evil. As R"Y Kara writes: "נבואה זו אמר נחום על אשור שחזרו לחטוא".‎¹⁷

Sackcloth and fasting for animals – The animal participation is evidence of the zeal with which the Ninevites approached their repentance. They went to the extreme, including everyone in their self affliction.  If this is reflective of their general behavior, however, it might have contributed to the short-lived nature of their repentance. Extreme measures are hard to sustain.

וְיִקְרְאוּ אֶל אֱלֹהִים בְּחׇזְקָה – The adverb "בְּחׇזְקָה" in this verse might also imply not just an intense prayer, but one taken to the extreme.

Immediate response – The people's immediate response to Yonah's cry suggests that their change was not the result of an extended period of introspection in which they reflected on their mistakes. More likely, the people were simply caught up in the emotion of the moment. Though their regret was sincere and reparations were made, they did not think deeply about how to modify their behavior and attitudes for the long term..¹⁸

Repentance from fear – The fact that the Ninevites repented out of fear rather than a true recognition of right and wrong similarly contributed to the transitory nature of their repentance.  Change born of fear does not often last long after the danger abates.¹⁹

Why was Yonah upset? If Yonah believed that the repentance of the Ninevites was to be short-lived, it is understandable why he was upset that Hashem nonetheless forgave them.

"מְשַׁמְּרִים הַבְלֵי שָׁוְא" – As part of his prayer while in the fish's belly, Yonah states, "מְשַׁמְּרִים הַבְלֵי שָׁוְא חַסְדָּם יַעֲזֹבוּ".  This position might maintain, as does Abarbanel, that Yonah is referring to the people of Nineveh.  Yonah tells Hashem that they might turn to God when in danger, but will soon forsake Him (חַסְדָּם יַעֲזֹבוּ). This was the reason he had not wanted to prophesy from the very beginning.²⁰

Message of the gourd – Hashem has Yonah benefit from the gourd for just a day, then removes it, to help  Yonah recognize that he, too, sees worth in that which is transitory. While it lasted, Yonah was happy for the gourd's existence and would not have asked that it be uprooted just because it was to die soon. Hashem teaches Yonah that the same is true of repentance. In the moment, repentance is accepted regardless of how long it will last afterwards.

"וַאֲנִי לֹא אָחוּס עַל נִינְוֵה... אֲשֶׁר לֹא יָדַע בֵּין יְמִינוֹ לִשְׂמֹאלוֹ" – In these words, Hashem adds another reason why he would accept the Ninevites' repentance even though it was short lived. The city was huge and many within did not know better ("אֲשֶׁר לֹא יָדַע בֵּין יְמִינוֹ לִשְׂמֹאלוֹ").  To destroy so many under such circumstances, especially after they sincerely repented, would not be right.

¹ See Bavli Taanit and Rashi who suggest that the people used the animals as a means of asking mercy from Hashem. They separated the mothers frםm their children and said to Hashem, "If you do not have mercy on these, we will not have mercy on these". The commentary attributed to Rashi explains that the people were saying: "Just as you have are known to have mercy on all your creations, have mercy on us as well." Hoil Moshe adds that in having the animals participate, the people were trying to highlight the innocent in the hopes that they would evoke mercy on even the wicked.

² See below that  Ibn Ezra maintains that the people of Nineveh had been monotheists even before Yonah appeared to them.  According to him, then, this verse does not speak of newfound faith, but comes only to explain why the people were willing to heed Yonah's call.   He points to the absence of descriptions of abandoning idols as evidence that the people must have already believed exclusively in Hashem. Cf. the approach below which, in contrast, points to this fact as evidence that the people must have held onto their idolatrous ways.

³ This would explain why the name Elokim resurfaces in Chapter 4, in the context of Hashem inviting the worm and wind to cause Yonah distress. It does not explain, however, why the name Elokim is employed in 3:10 where we are told that the decree against Nineveh was nullified as this would appear to reflect Hashem's attributes of mercy.  One might respond that the salvation was actually an act of justice, not mercy, for the people no longer deserved destruction.

⁴ This is perhaps the simplest way to read Yonah's prayer of Chapter 2, but see Yonah's Prayer for other understandings.

⁵ See also Radak's father who goes further to suggest that the whole purpose of the storm and being thrown into the sea was that it provide a sign to verify his prophecy.

⁶ They told the people that despite their having thrown Yonah overboard to his death, he survived.

⁷ One might have come to the same conclusion from the phrase, "וַיַּאֲמִינוּ אַנְשֵׁי נִינְוֵה בֵּאלֹהִים" in verse 5.

⁸ According to him the statement "וַיֵּצֵא יוֹנָה מִן הָעִיר" in Chapter 4:5 is out of place and occurred earlier.

⁹ As it is rare for a prophet to successfully lead the people to repentance, the assumption is understandable.

¹⁰ See R"E Ben-Menachem, Da'at Mikra Commentary to Yonah, (1973): 7-8 and Prof. U. Simon, Mikra LeYisrael, Commentary to Yonah (1992).

¹¹ He suggests that the people separated the mothers from their young, leading each to cry for the other.

¹² Being polytheistic, a belief in Hashem did not require any shift in their theological outlook.  In fact, that might have always believed in Hashem as one of many gods.  Yonah simply convinced them that He was powerful enough to destroy their city.

¹³ See R. Tzvi Romm, "The Failed Teshuvah of Nineveh", in the Benjamin and Rose Berger Torah to Go Series (2015): 10-14, who analyzes the various changes of Hashem's name throughout the book and what these say about the quality of Nineveh's repentance. He suggests that the name Hashem is used when one has created a personal connection with Hashem, something the people of Nineveh failed to do.

¹⁴ Prof. E. Urbach "תשובת נינוה והויכוח היהודי נוצרית", Tarbiz 20 (1949): 118-122.

¹⁵ Prof. Urbach notes that the Christians made use of Midrashic material (see Mekhilta DeRabbi Yishmael Shemot 12:1) which used similar arguments, but twisted them to their own purposes.

¹⁶ Prof. Urbach notes that the historical backdrop accounts for the differing reads of the story by sages in Babylonia and Israel.  As Christianity was widespread and strong in Israel (but not in the East) at the time, only the Amoraim in Israel were concerned about and felt the need to combat the Christian claims.

¹⁷ The Book of Nachum does not share during which kings' reigns Nachum prophesied, making it difficult to date exactly. Seder Olam Rabbah 20 suggests that Nachum was active during the reign of Menashe, King of Yehuda.  This fits Nachum 3:8-10 which speaks of the site נוא אמון as having already been destroyed, an event dated by scholars to about 75 years before the destruction. If so, Nachum prophesied about a century after Yonah.
Interestingly, Josephus (Antiquities 9:11) dates Nachum to the reign of Yotam, King of Yehuda, just a generation or two after Yonah.  According to him, it took almost no time at all for the city to revert to its original evil.

¹⁸ One might compare their change of heart to the repentance of Israel on Mt. Carmel. With one impressive show, Eliyahu convinces the nation to abandon the Baal and cry out "י"י הוּא הָאֱ-לֹהִים". Yet, in the very next chapter Eliyahu is distressed and cries to Hashem: "כִּי עָזְבוּ בְרִיתְךָ בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל," implying that soon after the demonstration, the nation had reverted back to idolatry.

¹⁹ It is interesting to note that all who cry out to Hashem in Sefer Yonah do so from a place of fear. The sailors turn to God only due to the danger of death at sea and Yonah cries out to Hashem only once entrapped in the fish. [See Yonah's Prayer, though, that not all agree that Yonah's prayer was petitionary or repentant in nature.] It is possible that in both these cases, too, the return is transitory.  See Radak who reads "מְשַׁמְּרִים הַבְלֵי שָׁוְא חַסְדָּם יַעֲזֹבוּ" to refer to the sailors who were soon to abandon their newfound belief. Yonah's "return", too, lasts only until Chapter 4 when he again complains to Hashem.

²⁰ See Prof. D. Henshke, "למשמעו של ספר יונה", Megadim 29 (1998): 75-90 who develops this idea.  For discussion of this reading of the story, see Why Did Yonah Disobey Hashem?