Yosef, Esther, and Daniel/0

Yosef, Esther, and Daniel¹

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Exilic Challenges

After centuries of sovereignty on their own land, the Jews living during the Babylonian Exile suddenly needed to confront the new situation of being strangers and guests in a foreign country and the concomitant risks of acculturation and assimilation. For Jews who were fortunate or unfortunate enough to be thrust into the king's service or palace, the challenges were even more formidable.  This is the shared backdrop of the exilic books of Daniel and Esther.  Each depicts the attempts of its protagonist to navigate the non-Jewish corridors of power and advocate for their nation.  And in each case, the central characters need to decide whether to risk their lives in order to continue to embrace their religion, or whether to give their religious identities a lower profile in order to better comply with the cultural expectations of their society.

The Yosef Model

In attempting to find the proper approach to their situation, Jews searched for a Biblical precedent and readily found the prototype of Yosef.  As the first of our nation to spend most of his life in exile, Yosef was a logical source to gain insight into how a Jew should behave in exile.

Yosef proved, though, to be a complex model, as the narrative of Bereshit allows for widely differing perspectives on Yosef's conduct in Egypt and his attitudes toward his Abrahamic heritage.  On the one hand, when interpreting the dreams of both the butler and baker and Paroh, Yosef consistently acknowledges that all comes from God:

EN/HEע/E

וַיֹּאמְרוּ אֵלָיו חֲלוֹם חָלַמְנוּ וּפֹתֵר אֵין אֹתוֹ וַיֹּאמֶר אֲלֵהֶם יוֹסֵף הֲלוֹא לֵאלֹהִים פִּתְרֹנִים סַפְּרוּ נָא לִי. (מ':ח')

וַיַּעַן יוֹסֵף אֶת פַּרְעֹה לֵאמֹר בִּלְעָדָי אֱלֹהִים יַעֲנֶה אֶת שְׁלוֹם פַּרְעֹה.  (מ':ט"ז)

On the other hand, there are also indications that Yosef did not maintain his religious identity in Egypt. Yosef married the daughter of an Egyptian priest, and in naming his firstborn son, Menasheh, he expresses his gratitude to God for enabling him to forget his father’s house ("כִּי נַשַּׁנִי אֱלֹהִים אֶת כָּל עֲמָלִי וְאֵת כָּל בֵּית אָבִי").  Yosef’s erasure of his original identity is so complete that when his brothers arrive in Egypt, they are unable to recognize him as a Semite because of his Egyptian garb and language.²

Three Way Parallels

There are a number of similarities between the stories of Yosef, Daniel, and Esther. The protagonists all begin as lowly exiles, but manage to rise in the political hierarchy³ until they ultimately reached great political positions within their foreign governments. Each had both a foreign and Hebrew name and is described as beautiful and capable of gracing those around them. Finally, it is striking that a turning point for each of these characters begins on a night when the king has trouble sleeping.⁴

The similar plot line and rise to power of each of the leaders naturally leads to a comparison of their religious choices along that path.  Each of the books of Esther and Daniel draw heavily on the Yosef narrative, suggesting that they see in him, as the first exilic leader, a model for emulation.  The books diverge greatly in their borrowings, though, with each taking a different reading of Yosef's religious persona and moving beyond it.  Daniel becomes the example of courtier who proudly displays his Jewish religion, willing to self sacrifice in the name of his Judaism, while Esther hides her identity, and does not act to maintain a Jewish lifestyle.

EN/HEע/E

אסתר	יוסף	דניאל
(ב:ז) וְהַנַּעֲרָה יְפַת תֹּאַר וְטוֹבַת מַרְאֶה...	(לט:ו) וַיְהִי יוֹסֵף יְפֵה תֹאַר וִיפֵה מַרְאֶה. (מא:ב) שֶׁבַע פָּרוֹת יְפוֹת מַרְאֶה וּבְרִיאֹת בָּשָׂר וַתִּרְעֶינָה בָּאָחוּ.	(א:טו) וּמִקְצָת יָמִים עֲשָׂרָה נִרְאָה מַרְאֵיהֶם טוֹב וּבְרִיאֵי בָּשָׂר מִן כָּל הַיְלָדִים הָאֹכְלִים אֵת פַּתְבַּג הַמֶּלֶךְ.
(ב:יז) וַיֶּאֱהַב הַמֶּלֶךְ אֶת אֶסְתֵּר מִכָּל הַנָּשִׁים וַתִּשָּׂא חֵן וָחֶסֶד לְפָנָיו...	(לט:כא) וַיְהִי ה' אֶת יוֹסֵף וַיֵּט אֵלָיו חָסֶד וַיִּתֵּן חִנּוֹ בְּעֵינֵי שַׂר בֵּית הַסֹּהַר.	(א:ט) וַיִּתֵּן הָאֱלֹהִים אֶת דָּנִיֵּאל לְחֶסֶד וּלְרַחֲמִים לִפְנֵי שַׂר הַסָּרִיסִים.
(ו:א) בַּלַּיְלָה הַהוּא נָדְדָה שְׁנַת הַמֶּלֶךְ...	(מא:ח) וַיְהִי בַבֹּקֶר וַתִּפָּעֶם רוּחוֹ...	(ב:א) וּבִשְׁנַת שְׁתַּיִם לְמַלְכוּת נְבֻכַדְנֶצַּר חָלַם נְבֻכַדְנֶצַּר חֲלֹמוֹת וַתִּתְפָּעֶם רוּחוֹ וּשְׁנָתוֹ נִהְיְתָה עָלָיו.
(א:יג) וַיֹּאמֶר הַמֶּלֶךְ לַחֲכָמִים יֹדְעֵי הָעִתִּים כִּי כֵן דְּבַר הַמֶּלֶךְ לִפְנֵי כָּל יֹדְעֵי דָּת וָדִין.	(מא:ח) וַיִּשְׁלַח וַיִּקְרָא אֶת כָּל חַרְטֻמֵּי מִצְרַיִם וְאֶת כָּל חֲכָמֶיהָ וַיְסַפֵּר פַּרְעֹה לָהֶם אֶת חֲלֹמוֹ וְאֵין פּוֹתֵר אוֹתָם לְפַרְעֹה.	(ד:ג) וּמִנִּי שִׂים טְעֵם לְהַנְעָלָה קָדָמַי לְכֹל חַכִּימֵי בָבֶל דִּי פְשַׁר חֶלְמָא יְהוֹדְעֻנַּנִי.
(ג:ד) כִּי הִגִּיד לָהֶם אֲשֶׁר הוּא יְהוּדִי.	(מא:יב) וְשָׁם אִתָּנוּ נַעַר עִבְרִי עֶבֶד לְשַׂר הַטַּבָּחִים וַנְּסַפֶּר לוֹ וַיִּפְתָּר לָנוּ אֶת חֲלֹמֹתֵינוּ אִישׁ כַּחֲלֹמוֹ פָּתָר.	(ב:כה) אֱדַיִן אַרְיוֹךְ בְּהִתְבְּהָלָה הַנְעֵל לְדָנִיֵּאל קֳדָם מַלְכָּא וְכֵן אֲמַר לֵהּ דִּי הַשְׁכַּחַת גְּבַר מִן בְּנֵי גָלוּתָא דִּי יְהוּד דִּי פִשְׁרָא לְמַלְכָּא יְהוֹדַע.
(ו:יא) וַיִּקַּח הָמָן אֶת הַלְּבוּשׁ וְאֶת הַסּוּס וַיַּלְבֵּשׁ אֶת מָרְדֳּכָי וַיַּרְכִּיבֵהוּ בִּרְחוֹב הָעִיר וַיִּקְרָא לְפָנָיו כָּכָה יֵעָשֶׂה לָאִישׁ אֲשֶׁר הַמֶּלֶךְ חָפֵץ בִּיקָרוֹ. (ח:טו) וּמָרְדֳּכַי יָצָא מִלִּפְנֵי הַמֶּלֶךְ בִּלְבוּשׁ מַלְכוּת תְּכֵלֶת וָחוּר וַעֲטֶרֶת זָהָב גְּדוֹלָה וְתַכְרִיךְ בּוּץ וְאַרְגָּמָן...	(מא:מב) וַיָּסַר פַּרְעֹה אֶת טַבַּעְתּוֹ מֵעַל יָדוֹ וַיִּתֵּן אֹתָהּ עַל יַד יוֹסֵף וַיַּלְבֵּשׁ אֹתוֹ בִּגְדֵי שֵׁשׁ וַיָּשֶׂם רְבִד הַזָּהָב עַל צַוָּארוֹ. (מג) וַיַּרְכֵּב אֹתוֹ בְּמִרְכֶּבֶת הַמִּשְׁנֶה אֲשֶׁר לוֹ וַיִּקְרְאוּ לְפָנָיו אַבְרֵךְ וְנָתוֹן אֹתוֹ עַל כָּל אֶרֶץ מִצְרָיִם.	(ה:כט) בֵּאדַיִן אֲמַר בֵּלְשַׁאצַּר וְהַלְבִּישׁוּ לְדָנִיֵּאל אַרְגְּוָנָא [וְהַמְנִיכָא] דִי דַהֲבָא עַל צַוְּארֵהּ וְהַכְרִזוּ עֲלוֹהִי דִּי לֶהֱוֵא שַׁלִּיט תַּלְתָּא בְּמַלְכוּתָא.
(ב:ז) וַיְהִי אֹמֵן אֶת הֲדַסָּה הִיא אֶסְתֵּר בַּת דֹּדוֹ...	(מא:מה) וַיִּקְרָא פַרְעֹה שֵׁם יוֹסֵף צָפְנַת פַּעְנֵחַ וַיִּתֶּן לוֹ אֶת אָסְנַת בַּת פּוֹטִי פֶרַע כֹּהֵן אֹן לְאִשָּׁה וַיֵּצֵא יוֹסֵף עַל אֶרֶץ מִצְרָיִם.	(א:ז) וַיָּשֶׂם לָהֶם שַׂר הַסָּרִיסִים שֵׁמוֹת וַיָּשֶׂם לְדָנִיֵּאל בֵּלְטְשַׁאצַּר וְלַחֲנַנְיָה שַׁדְרַךְ וּלְמִישָׁאֵל מֵישַׁךְ וְלַעֲזַרְיָה עֲבֵד נְגוֹ.
(י:ג) כִּי מָרְדֳּכַי הַיְּהוּדִי מִשְׁנֶה לַמֶּלֶךְ אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ וְגָדוֹל לַיְּהוּדִים וְרָצוּי לְרֹב אֶחָיו דֹּרֵשׁ טוֹב לְעַמּוֹ וְדֹבֵר שָׁלוֹם לְכָל זַרְעוֹ.	(מה:כו) וַיַּגִּדוּ לוֹ לֵאמֹר עוֹד יוֹסֵף חַי וְכִי הוּא מֹשֵׁל בְּכָל אֶרֶץ מִצְרָיִם וַיָּפָג לִבּוֹ כִּי לֹא הֶאֱמִין לָהֶם.	(ב:מח) אֱדַיִן מַלְכָּא לְדָנִיֵּאל רַבִּי וּמַתְּנָן רַבְרְבָן שַׂגִּיאָן יְהַב לֵהּ וְהַשְׁלְטֵהּ עַל כָּל מְדִינַת בָּבֶל וְרַב סִגְנִין עַל כָּל חַכִּימֵי בָבֶל.

Esther	Yosef	Daniel

There are a number of similarities between the stories of Yosef, Daniel, and Esther. Yosef, Daniel, Mordechai, and Esther all began as lowly exiles, but ultimately reached great political positions within their foreign governments. Before reaching their highest points however, they each have a relatively respected position within their settings.  Yosef is promoted in prison, and both Daniel and Mordechai are described as sitting by the gate of the palace (Daniel 2:49, Esther 2:21) which suggests they were a part of the royal bureaucracy.

Interestingly, a turning point for these characters begins on a night in which the king cannot sleep. In the story of Yosef and the story of Daniel, the king cannot sleep because he is bothered by his dreams, while in the story of Esther, we are simply told that Achashverosh cannot sleep. See back page for full comparison of the stories of Yosef and Daniel regarding their interpretation of the dream. See also the comparison of Yosef and Esther which highlights thematic and literary connections between the two stories.

Daniel vs. Esther and Mordechai

Like Yosef, Daniel was given a Babylonian name; as with Yosef, the narrative continues to refer to him as Daniel (except that his Babylonian name is used in the speech of Nebuchadnezzar and occasionally alongside the Hebrew name Daniel). Daniel is no mere Yosef, however: he is far superior. This was true already when we first met Daniel, in chapter 1. Daniel refused the royal food of Nebuchadnezzar, under the fear of becoming “defiled” (Daniel 1:8):
וַיָּשֶׂם דָּנִיֵּאל עַל-לִבּוֹ אֲשֶׁר לֹא-יִתְגָּאַל בְּפַת-בַּג הַמֶּלֶךְ וּבְיֵין מִשְׁתָּיו וַיְבַקֵּשׁ מִשַּׂר הַסָּרִיסִים אֲשֶׁר לֹא יִתְגָּאָל.

The use of the root גאל makes it difficult to pinpoint what Daniel’s concern with the royal food was. While it is possible that Daniel refused the food due to kashrut, it seems likely that the more serious issue was the issue of Jewish identity and assimilation. By not eating the food, Daniel expresses that he will not allow the culture of the palace to sustain him. The request for seeds, then, is to be understood not as an issue of finding kosher food, but of eating food in its natural state, with no cultural associations.

Nothing of the sort was ever said about Yosef. Indeed, Daniel’s superiority extends even to his interpretive powers: while Yosef merely interpreted the dreams Pharaoh told him about, Daniel had to first divine what the dream was, since Nebuchadnezzar refused to share it.  But, more importantly, the superiority of Daniel is seen in the realm of personal piety.  Yosef had sufficed with the statement, bil‘ādai “it is beyond me” (Genesis 41:16).  Daniel, on the other hand, beseeches God for wisdom, and when it is granted, embarks on a long prayer of thanks and praise to God (Daniel 2:18 and 2:20-23).  Finally, Daniel launches into a long speech aimed at persuading the king that it is the power of God that he is witnessing:
רָזָא דִּי-מַלְכָּא שָׁאֵל לָא חַכִּימִין אָשְׁפִין חַרְטֻמִּין גָּזְרִין יָכְלִין לְהַחֲוָיָה לְמַלְכָּא. בְּרַם אִיתַי אֱלָהּ בִּשְׁמַיָּא גָּלֵא רָזִין וְהוֹדַע לְמַלְכָּא נְבוּכַדְנֶצַּר מָה דִּי לֶהֱוֵא בְּאַחֲרִית יוֹמַיָּא חֶלְמָךְ וְחֶזְוֵי רֵאשָׁךְ עַל-מִשְׁכְּבָךְ דְּנָה הוּא. אַנְתְּ מַלְכָּא רַעְיוֹנָךְ עַל-מִשְׁכְּבָךְ סְלִקוּ מָה דִּי לֶהֱוֵא אַחֲרֵי דְנָה וְגָלֵא רָזַיָּא הוֹדְעָךְ מָה-דִי לֶהֱוֵא. וַאֲנָה לָא בְחָכְמָה דִּי-אִיתַי בִּי מִן-כָּל-חַיַּיָּא רָזָא דְנָה גֱּלִי לִי לָהֵן עַל-דִּבְרַת דִּי פִשְׁרָא לְמַלְכָּא יְהוֹדְעוּן וְרַעְיוֹנֵי לִבְבָךְ תִּנְדַּע.

The secret which the king has asked – neither wise men nor enchanters, neither magicians nor diviners can inform the king about.  But there is a God in heaven, who reveals secrets, and he made known to King Nebuchadnezzar what will occur in the future.  As for me, the secret was not revealed to me because of any more wisdom that other living beings, but in order that the interpretation be made known to the king, so that you should know the thoughts of your heart.

Perhaps most importantly, the religious effect that Daniel has on his king far surpasses that which Yosef has on his.  Pharaoh acknowledges the power of Yosef’s God, even while minimizing its relevance: “since God (god?) revealed all this to you, there is no one as discerning and wise as you” (emphasis added).  God himself is irrelevant to Pharaoh: the important thing is that he now has a surpassingly wise advisor.  Nebuchadnezzar, on the other hand, draws far-reaching religious conclusions from his experience: “It is true,” he tells Daniel, “that your god is the God of gods and the lord of kings, revealer of secrets – since you were able to reveal this secret!”  Rather than God being in the service of the wise man, here the wise man is seen to be in the service of God.

Daniel’s character is stubbornly consistent throughout the stories about him.  Even after Daniel interprets the dreams for Nebuchadnezzar and is given a high position in the government, he remains loyal to his religious beliefs. Whereas Yosef, as far as we can tell from the narratives, fully adopted the lifestyle of his host – eating the food, dressing the dress, and generally doing nothing to betray his Jewish identity – Daniel refuses to eat the food in the Babylonian palace (chapter 1) and insists on praying three times a day – at the window, no less, without any attempt at secrecy – despite the death sentence imposed on anyone who would pray at all (chapter 6).

The lesson from Daniel is clear: a Jew in exile must be completely committed to the traditional religion; there is no room to compromise, but also no reason to do so, as one who is committed to God will be justly rewarded. God not only saves Daniel from the lions’ den, and Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah from the furnace, but also then ensures that those who accused them are punished and that the heroes are rewarded by the king himself, who realizes the errors of his ways.

These connections invite the reader to compare the characters of the heroes of Esther to the character of Yosef. In fact, within Esther we see two different models of the Jew in exile, Esther and Mordechai, both of whom may be compared to Yosef, but neither of whom is quite like Daniel. Unlike Daniel, Esther keeps her religious identity hidden, perhaps echoing the second understanding of Yosef, in which it Yosef consciously forgot his religious ties. Esther’s Hebrew name, Hadassah, is used only once to introduce her, and then quickly forgotten, literarily demonstrating a sense of removal from her heritage. Even once peace is restored to Persia and the threat to the Jews is eradicated, Esther is only called “Queen Esther, the daughter of Avihayil,” as if to say that despite now being able to reveal her Jewish ancestry, her own identity is that of “Esther,” not “Hadassah.”

Unlike Daniel, Esther shows no defiance of the foreign rule. From the moment she enters the palace we are not told of any sacrifices Esther made in order to maintain a Jewish lifestyle. Esther is not asked to choose between her loyalties – to king and people, or husband and cousin – until Mordechai forces her to do so in chapter 4. The extent of her rebellion against the king, however, is that she goes into the palace uninvited.
In contrast to Esther, Mordechai does not keep his identity a secret. The book of Esther introduces Mordechai (Esther 2:5):
אִישׁ יְהוּדִי הָיָה בְּשׁוּשַׁן הַבִּירָה, וּשְׁמוֹ מָרְדֳּכַי בֶּן יָאִיר בֶּן-שִׁמְעִי בֶּן-קִישׁ, אִישׁ יְמִינִי.

From this introductory verse, Mordechai’s Jewish identity is evident. At the same time, he is deeply loyal to the king; he saves the king’s life by revealing the plot of Bigtan and Teresh. For years these two loyalties coexist. When Haman rises to power, however, Mordechai is forced to choose. His disloyalty to the Persian king begins in chapter 3, when he refuses to bow to Haman, and in chapter 4, he chooses emphatically to be with the Jews and outside of the Persian society:
וּמָרְדֳּכַי יָדַע אֶת-כָּל-אֲשֶׁר נַעֲשָׂה וַיִּקְרַע מָרְדֳּכַי אֶת-בְּגָדָיו וַיִּלְבַּשׁ שַׂק וָאֵפֶר וַיֵּצֵא בְּתוֹךְ הָעִיר וַיִּזְעַק זְעָקָה גְדוֹלָה וּמָרָה. וַיָּבוֹא עַד לִפְנֵי שַׁעַר-הַמֶּלֶךְ, כִּי אֵין לָבוֹא אֶל-שַׁעַר הַמֶּלֶךְ בִּלְבוּשׁ שָׂק.

Once the threat has passed, however, Mordechai reverts to supporting the Persian government. The final verse of Esther reads (Esther 10:3):
כִּי מָרְדֳּכַי הַיְּהוּדִי מִשְׁנֶה לַמֶּלֶךְ אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ וְגָדוֹל לַיְּהוּדִים וְרָצוּי לְרֹב אֶחָיו דֹּרֵשׁ טוֹב לְעַמּוֹ וְדֹבֵר שָׁלוֹם לְכָל-זַרְעוֹ.

Mordechai is described as a Jew, but also the second to the king, demonstrating his allegiance to both. Nonetheless, as indicated by the verse, he is a Jew first indicating that if his two allegiances are to contradict, Mordechai will act in support of the Jews and not his foreign government.

In sum, the controversial character of Yosef tempted and challenged Diaspora Jews centuries after his own story was written.  Was he a model to be followed?  How much of an overt Jewish identity could one shed in order to be in a position to utilize power on behalf of the Jews?  Esther gives up quite a lot; Daniel, throughout his book, does not give up a single inch.  Should the goal of Jewish life in the Diaspora be survival, as exemplified by Yosef and celebrated by Esther? Or should Jews be more ambitious, and attempt to demonstrate the power and beauty of the Jewish religion to others, as practiced by Daniel?

No easy answers to these questions were, or are, available.  In the Persian period of Jewish history, nearly 2500 years ago, Jews in the Diaspora searched through their sacred scriptures and histories searching for precedents for their own lives which could provide guidance.  When they found suitable models, these could be pressed into service.  When they did not, the traditions had to be rewritten in a way that would better serve the goals of the writers.  What these writers shared was an insistence on the relevance of the Jewish past for present questions of identity and culture.  In this regard, they can well serve as models in our own quests.

¹ This topic draws on the book of Prof. Aaron Koller, Esther in Ancient Jewish Thought, (Cambridge University Press, 2014).

² For more on the conflicting perspectives on Yosef, see Yosef's Religious Identity and Why Did Yosef Frame Binyamin.

³ Yosef is promoted to the head of Potiphar's house and both Daniel and Mordechai are described as sitting by the gate of the palace (Daniel 2:49, Esther 2:21) which suggests they were a part of the royal bureaucracy.

⁴ In the story of Yosef and the story of Daniel, the king's insomnia is due to his troublesome dreams, while in the story of Esther, no reason is given.