Difference between revisions of ""עַיִן תַּחַת עַיִן" – An Eye for an Eye/2"
(Original Author: Rabbi Hillel Novetsky) |
(Original Author: Rabbi Hillel Novetsky) |
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Ben Zuta (the Karaite) cited by <multilink><a href="IbnEzraShemotLong21-23" data-aht="source">Ibn Ezra</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotLong21-23" data-aht="source">Shemot Long Commentary 21:23-24</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotShort21-25" data-aht="source">Shemot Short Commentary 21:25</a><a href="R. Avraham ibn Ezra" data-aht="parshan">About R. Avraham ibn Ezra</a></multilink><fn>See also the Karaite commentaries of Yefet b. Eli in MGWJ (1897): 205 and Aharon b. Eliyahu in Keter Torah, Shemot p. 143. Ibn Ezra in his Short Commentary cites this position in the name of the Karaites ("המכחישים").</fn> | Ben Zuta (the Karaite) cited by <multilink><a href="IbnEzraShemotLong21-23" data-aht="source">Ibn Ezra</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotLong21-23" data-aht="source">Shemot Long Commentary 21:23-24</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotShort21-25" data-aht="source">Shemot Short Commentary 21:25</a><a href="R. Avraham ibn Ezra" data-aht="parshan">About R. Avraham ibn Ezra</a></multilink><fn>See also the Karaite commentaries of Yefet b. Eli in MGWJ (1897): 205 and Aharon b. Eliyahu in Keter Torah, Shemot p. 143. Ibn Ezra in his Short Commentary cites this position in the name of the Karaites ("המכחישים").</fn> | ||
</mekorot> | </mekorot> | ||
− | <point><b>Judicial theory</b> – Philo focuses on the need for appropriate retribution for the person who committed the crime. Thus, he explains that proper justice mandates a measure for measure punishment, exactly equal to the damage that was done, be it injury to life, limbs, or property.<fn>Cf. the <multilink><a href="RambamMoreh3-41" data-aht="source">Rambam</a><a href="RambamMoreh3-41" data-aht="source">Moreh Nevukhim 3:41</a><a href="R. Moshe b. Maimon (Rambam)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Moshe Maimonides</a></multilink>'s similar formulation.</fn> Talionic justice also serves as a significant deterrent to others who might consider committing such a crime.</point> | + | <point><b>Judicial theory</b> – Philo focuses on the need for appropriate retribution for the person who committed the crime. Thus, he explains that proper justice mandates a measure for measure punishment, exactly equal to the damage that was done, be it injury to life, limbs, or property.<fn>Cf. the <multilink><a href="RambamMoreh3-41" data-aht="source">Rambam</a><a href="RambamMoreh3-41" data-aht="source">Moreh Nevukhim 3:41</a><a href="R. Moshe b. Maimon (Rambam, Maimonides)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Moshe Maimonides</a></multilink>'s similar formulation.</fn> Talionic justice also serves as a significant deterrent to others who might consider committing such a crime.</point> |
<point><b>"נֶפֶשׁ תַּחַת נָפֶשׁ"</b> – According to this approach, both "נֶפֶשׁ תַּחַת נָפֶשׁ" and "עַיִן תַּחַת עַיִן" refer to retribution in kind.</point> | <point><b>"נֶפֶשׁ תַּחַת נָפֶשׁ"</b> – According to this approach, both "נֶפֶשׁ תַּחַת נָפֶשׁ" and "עַיִן תַּחַת עַיִן" refer to retribution in kind.</point> | ||
<point><b>Biblical parallels</b> – The principle of "מידה כנגד מידה", or "just deserts", is a dominant motif in Tanakh.<fn>It should be noted, though, that many of these instances are with regard to murder – see Bereshit 9:6, Bemidbar 35:33, Shemuel I 15:33, Shemuel II 12:9-12 (murder and adultery), and Melakhim 21:19.</fn> A classic case of <i>lex talionis</i> is the cutting off of AdoniBezek's thumbs and big toes in <a href="Shofetim1-6" data-aht="source">Shofetim 1:6-7</a> as a repayment in kind for his doing the same to other kings.<fn>Cf. Ralbag's interpretation of this episode.</fn></point> | <point><b>Biblical parallels</b> – The principle of "מידה כנגד מידה", or "just deserts", is a dominant motif in Tanakh.<fn>It should be noted, though, that many of these instances are with regard to murder – see Bereshit 9:6, Bemidbar 35:33, Shemuel I 15:33, Shemuel II 12:9-12 (murder and adultery), and Melakhim 21:19.</fn> A classic case of <i>lex talionis</i> is the cutting off of AdoniBezek's thumbs and big toes in <a href="Shofetim1-6" data-aht="source">Shofetim 1:6-7</a> as a repayment in kind for his doing the same to other kings.<fn>Cf. Ralbag's interpretation of this episode.</fn></point> | ||
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<multilink><a href="RashbamShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Rashbam</a><a href="RashbamShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:24</a><a href="R. Shemuel b. Meir (Rashbam)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Shemuel b. Meir</a></multilink>, | <multilink><a href="RashbamShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Rashbam</a><a href="RashbamShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:24</a><a href="R. Shemuel b. Meir (Rashbam)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Shemuel b. Meir</a></multilink>, | ||
<multilink><a href="RYBSShemot21-24" data-aht="source">R. Yosef Bekhor Shor</a><a href="RYBSShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:24-25</a><a href="RYBSVayikra24-21" data-aht="source">Vayikra 24:21</a><a href="R. Yosef Bekhor Shor" data-aht="parshan">About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor</a></multilink>, | <multilink><a href="RYBSShemot21-24" data-aht="source">R. Yosef Bekhor Shor</a><a href="RYBSShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:24-25</a><a href="RYBSVayikra24-21" data-aht="source">Vayikra 24:21</a><a href="R. Yosef Bekhor Shor" data-aht="parshan">About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor</a></multilink>, | ||
− | <multilink><a href="RalbagShemot21P24" data-aht="source">Ralbag</a><a href="RalbagShemot21P24" data-aht="source">Beiur Divrei HaParashah Shemot 21:24-25</a><a href="RalbagShemot21T5" data-aht="source">Shemot 21 Toelet 5</a><a href="RalbagVayikra24P19" data-aht="source">Beiur Divrei HaParashah Vayikra 24:19-21</a><a href="RalbagDevarim19P21" data-aht="source">Beiur Divrei HaParashah Devarim 19:21</a><a href="R. Levi b. Gershon (Ralbag)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Levi b. Gershon</a></multilink>, | + | <multilink><a href="RalbagShemot21P24" data-aht="source">Ralbag</a><a href="RalbagShemot21P24" data-aht="source">Beiur Divrei HaParashah Shemot 21:24-25</a><a href="RalbagShemot21T5" data-aht="source">Shemot 21 Toelet 5</a><a href="RalbagVayikra24P19" data-aht="source">Beiur Divrei HaParashah Vayikra 24:19-21</a><a href="RalbagDevarim19P21" data-aht="source">Beiur Divrei HaParashah Devarim 19:21</a><a href="R. Levi b. Gershon (Ralbag, Gersonides)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Levi b. Gershon</a></multilink>, |
<multilink><a href="Akeidat46" data-aht="source">Akeidat Yitzchak</a><a href="Akeidat46" data-aht="source">Shemot #46</a><a href="Akeidat86" data-aht="source">Vayikra #86</a><a href="Akeidat97" data-aht="source">Devarim #97</a><a href="R. Yitzchak Arama (Akeidat Yitzchak)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Yitzchak Arama</a></multilink>, | <multilink><a href="Akeidat46" data-aht="source">Akeidat Yitzchak</a><a href="Akeidat46" data-aht="source">Shemot #46</a><a href="Akeidat86" data-aht="source">Vayikra #86</a><a href="Akeidat97" data-aht="source">Devarim #97</a><a href="R. Yitzchak Arama (Akeidat Yitzchak)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Yitzchak Arama</a></multilink>, | ||
<multilink><a href="AbarbanelShemot21-18" data-aht="source">Abarbanel</a><a href="AbarbanelShemot21-18" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:18</a><a href="AbarbanelVayikra24-10" data-aht="source">Vayikra 24:10</a><a href="AbarbanelDevarim19-14" data-aht="source">Devarim 19:14</a><a href="R. Yitzchak Abarbanel" data-aht="parshan">About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel</a></multilink>, | <multilink><a href="AbarbanelShemot21-18" data-aht="source">Abarbanel</a><a href="AbarbanelShemot21-18" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:18</a><a href="AbarbanelVayikra24-10" data-aht="source">Vayikra 24:10</a><a href="AbarbanelDevarim19-14" data-aht="source">Devarim 19:14</a><a href="R. Yitzchak Abarbanel" data-aht="parshan">About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel</a></multilink>, | ||
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<multilink><a href="Josephus4-8-33" data-aht="source">Josephus</a><a href="Josephus4-8-15" data-aht="source">Antiquities 4:8:15</a><a href="Josephus4-8-33" data-aht="source">Antiquities 4:8:33-35</a><a href="Josephus" data-aht="parshan">About Josephus</a></multilink>, | <multilink><a href="Josephus4-8-33" data-aht="source">Josephus</a><a href="Josephus4-8-15" data-aht="source">Antiquities 4:8:15</a><a href="Josephus4-8-33" data-aht="source">Antiquities 4:8:33-35</a><a href="Josephus" data-aht="parshan">About Josephus</a></multilink>, | ||
<multilink><a href="IbnEzraShemotLong21-23" data-aht="source">Ibn Ezra</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotLong21-23" data-aht="source">Shemot Long Commentary 21:23-24</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotLong21-29" data-aht="source">Shemot Long Commentary 21:29</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotShort21-25" data-aht="source">Shemot Short Commentary 21:25</a><a href="IbnEzraVayikra24-19" data-aht="source">Vayikra 24:19</a><a href="IbnEzraDevarim25-12" data-aht="source">Devarim 25:12</a><a href="R. Avraham ibn Ezra" data-aht="parshan">About R. Avraham ibn Ezra</a></multilink>, | <multilink><a href="IbnEzraShemotLong21-23" data-aht="source">Ibn Ezra</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotLong21-23" data-aht="source">Shemot Long Commentary 21:23-24</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotLong21-29" data-aht="source">Shemot Long Commentary 21:29</a><a href="IbnEzraShemotShort21-25" data-aht="source">Shemot Short Commentary 21:25</a><a href="IbnEzraVayikra24-19" data-aht="source">Vayikra 24:19</a><a href="IbnEzraDevarim25-12" data-aht="source">Devarim 25:12</a><a href="R. Avraham ibn Ezra" data-aht="parshan">About R. Avraham ibn Ezra</a></multilink>, | ||
− | <multilink><a href="RambanShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Ramban</a><a href="RambanShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:24</a><a href="RambanVayikra24-18" data-aht="source">Vayikra 24:18</a><a href="R. Moshe b. Nachman (Ramban)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Moshe Nachmanides</a></multilink>, | + | <multilink><a href="RambanShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Ramban</a><a href="RambanShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:24</a><a href="RambanVayikra24-18" data-aht="source">Vayikra 24:18</a><a href="R. Moshe b. Nachman (Ramban, Nachmanides)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Moshe Nachmanides</a></multilink>, |
<!--<fn>See also the opinion cited in the Karaite commentary of the <multilink><a href="HaMuvkhar" data-aht="source">HaMuvkhar</a><a href="HaMuvkhar" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:89-93</a><a href="Aharon b. Yosef the Karaite" data-aht="parshan">About Aharon b. Yosef</a></multilink>.</fn>--> | <!--<fn>See also the opinion cited in the Karaite commentary of the <multilink><a href="HaMuvkhar" data-aht="source">HaMuvkhar</a><a href="HaMuvkhar" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:89-93</a><a href="Aharon b. Yosef the Karaite" data-aht="parshan">About Aharon b. Yosef</a></multilink>.</fn>--> | ||
<multilink><a href="ShadalShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shadal</a><a href="ShadalShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:24</a><a href="ShadalDevarim25-12" data-aht="source">Devarim 25:12</a><a href="R. Shemuel David Luzzatto (Shadal)" data-aht="parshan">About R. S.D. Luzzatto</a></multilink>, | <multilink><a href="ShadalShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shadal</a><a href="ShadalShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:24</a><a href="ShadalDevarim25-12" data-aht="source">Devarim 25:12</a><a href="R. Shemuel David Luzzatto (Shadal)" data-aht="parshan">About R. S.D. Luzzatto</a></multilink>, | ||
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<p>The Torah's formulation conveys that the perpetrator truly deserves to lose a limb, even though this is not the punishment which is actually implemented.</p> | <p>The Torah's formulation conveys that the perpetrator truly deserves to lose a limb, even though this is not the punishment which is actually implemented.</p> | ||
<mekorot> | <mekorot> | ||
− | <multilink><a href="RambamChovel1-2" data-aht="source">Rambam</a><a href="RambamMishna" data-aht="source">Introduction to the Mishna</a><a href="RambamAseh236" data-aht="source">Sefer HaMitzvot, Aseh 236</a><a href="RambamChovel1-2" data-aht="source">Hilkhot Chovel UMazzik 1:2-5,9-10</a><a href="RambamRotzeach1-7" data-aht="source">Hilkhot Rotzeach 1:7-8</a><a href="RambamMoreh3-41" data-aht="source">Moreh Nevukhim 3:41</a><a href="R. Moshe b. Maimon (Rambam)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Moshe Maimonides</a></multilink>, | + | <multilink><a href="RambamChovel1-2" data-aht="source">Rambam</a><a href="RambamMishna" data-aht="source">Introduction to the Mishna</a><a href="RambamAseh236" data-aht="source">Sefer HaMitzvot, Aseh 236</a><a href="RambamChovel1-2" data-aht="source">Hilkhot Chovel UMazzik 1:2-5,9-10</a><a href="RambamRotzeach1-7" data-aht="source">Hilkhot Rotzeach 1:7-8</a><a href="RambamMoreh3-41" data-aht="source">Moreh Nevukhim 3:41</a><a href="R. Moshe b. Maimon (Rambam, Maimonides)" data-aht="parshan">About R. Moshe Maimonides</a></multilink>, |
<multilink><a href="SefornoShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Seforno</a><a href="SefornoShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:24</a><a href="SefornoVayikra24-17" data-aht="source">Vayikra 24:17</a><a href="R. Ovadyah Seforno" data-aht="parshan">About R. Ovadyah Seforno</a></multilink> | <multilink><a href="SefornoShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Seforno</a><a href="SefornoShemot21-24" data-aht="source">Shemot 21:24</a><a href="SefornoVayikra24-17" data-aht="source">Vayikra 24:17</a><a href="R. Ovadyah Seforno" data-aht="parshan">About R. Ovadyah Seforno</a></multilink> | ||
</mekorot> | </mekorot> |
Version as of 04:50, 1 January 2015
"עַיִן תַּחַת עַיִן" – An Eye for an Eye
Exegetical Approaches
Overview
Commentators disagree over whether the literal talionic meaning of "עַיִן תַּחַת עַיִן" is also the simple meaning of the verse when viewed in context. While early sources going back to the time of the second Beit HaMikdash, such as Jubilees and Philo, render the verse literally, later Rabbinic sources almost unanimously reject this option and interpret the verse metaphorically. This leads medieval and modern exegetes to struggle valiantly to reduce the tension between the literal retributive understanding of the verse and its Rabbinic interpretation. Some, like R. Saadia, go to great lengths to demonstrate how the Midrash is really the verse's simple meaning. Others, like Ibn Ezra and the Rambam view the verse as presenting an ideal which must be converted and translated when applied to real life. Finally, the Hoil Moshe differentiates between the generation of former slaves to which the Torah was originally given and future, more civilized, generations.
Physical Punishment
"עַיִן תַּחַת עַיִן" is understood literally, and talionic retribution is administered.
Monetary Compensation
"עַיִן תַּחַת עַיִן" is interpreted metaphorically, and monetary compensation is given for the exact value of the limb lost.
- Monetary compensation – R. Yehuda HaNasi in the Mekhilta and Bavli maintains that the passage is consistent in its use of language, and that this phrase similarly refers to monetary compensation16 for a life which was taken inadvertently.17
- Capital punishment – The first opinion in the Mekhilta and most other commentators assert that this phrase is rendered literally, even though all of the parallel phrases in the following verse are not.18 Mekhilta DeRashbi and Sifra prove this from the verses in Bemidbar 35:30-31 which explicitly prohibit the exacting of blood money.
Two Tracks
Torah law reflects the validity of both the literal and metaphorical interpretations. There are a number of variations of this approach:
Case Dependent
The verse refers to talion, but monetary compensation may be implemented in some cases, depending on the preferences of the parties or the type of injury.
- Victim's choice – Josephus states that the victim is given the option of deciding whether to accept money instead.
- Perpetrator's choice – Ibn Ezra says that the perpetrator can choose whether to pay ransom for his limb.
- Court's choice – Shadal suggests that the Torah left the decision to the discretion of the judges,23 in order to prevent a situation where a wealthy person can maim as he pleases as he would only need to pay compensation.
- Permanent or non-permanent injury – Ramban offers the possibility that permanent loss of limbs would be punished by talion, while non-permanent injuries would be compensated financially.
Evolving Society
The literal interpretation of the verse was its intended meaning for the generation of the Exodus, but the metaphorical understanding is its import for future generations.
Ideal vs. Reality
The Torah's formulation conveys that the perpetrator truly deserves to lose a limb, even though this is not the punishment which is actually implemented.