Commentators:R. Ovadyah Sforno/0

R. Ovadyah Sforno – Intellectual Profile

THIS PAGE HAS NOT YET UNDERGONE EDITORIAL REVIEW

R. Ovadyah Sforno

Name	R. Ovadyah Sforno ר' עובדיה ספורנו
Dates	~1470-~1550
Location	Italy
Works	Commentaries on Torah, parts of Nakh, and Pirkei Avot, Ohr Ammim
Exegetical Characteristics	Humanist
Influenced by	Rambam, Ramban
Impacted on

Background¹

Life

• Name – R. Ovadyah b. R. Yaakov Sforno²
  • Hebrew name – ר' עובדיה בן ר' יעקב ספורנו‎³
  • Latin name – Sphurnus⁴
• Dates – c. 1470 – c. 1550
• Location – R. Ovadyah was born in the Italian city of Cesena. He later moved to Rome and then to Bologna.
• Occupation – After studying traditional rabbinics in his hometown, R. Ovadyah moved to Rome to study medicine and other fields.⁵ Sforno was an expert in Hebrew grammar who was once commissioned to compose a book of Hebrew grammar, and to translate it to Latin. He became an important Halakhic authority who sent responsa to communities throughout Italy.⁶ R. Ovadyah made his living as a physician.⁷
• Family – R. Ovadyah had a brother Chananel,⁸ a son named Yaakov, and this son had a son also named Chananel.⁹
• Teachers – Unknown
• Contemporaries – R. Meir Katzenellenbogen, R. Eliezer Ashkenazi
• Students – 
• Notable events
  • –

Works

• Biblical commentaries – Torah,¹⁰ Shir HaShirim, Kohelet,¹¹ Yonah, Chavakkuk, Zekharyah,¹² Iyyov,¹³ Tehillim¹⁴
• Rabbinics – Commentary on Pirkei Avot
• Jewish thought – Ohr Ammim

Torah Commentary

Parts

• Main body – A verse by verse commentary.
• Index of Topics – A brief list of topics discussed in each Torah portion is printed after Sforno's commentary in the Venice edition. This list seems to have served as preliminary notes for the author's preparation of the commentary.¹⁵
• Ma'amar Kavvanot HaTorah (Essay on the Objectives of the Torah) – This essay was printed in the Venice edition following the Index of Topics.¹⁶ It serves as a conclusion and summary for the Torah Commentary.¹⁷

Characteristics

• Explaining Torah's organization – According to Sforno's introduction, one of his main objectives was to respond to attacks claiming that the Torah was not ordered sensibly. In the eyes of an enlightened Renaissance audience, the Torah seemed of inferior literary quality when compared with contemporary literature.
• Explaining the purposes of the Torah – Sforno seeks to explain the objectives of the Torah and its commandments.¹⁸ This included an agenda to explain the need for the various kinds of Torah texts – theological, legal, and narrative.¹⁹
• Concise – Sforno generally does not cite and discuss earlier opinions, but simply states his opinion in a concise manner.²⁰
• Peshat-oriented with minimal focus on grammar – Sforno was an expert in Hebrew grammar, but chose to rely on the work of earlier commentators in this regard in order to focus on the broader purposes of his commentary.²¹
• Philosophical/Maimonidean – Sforno had a broad general education, and, under the strong influence of Rambam, Sforno was one of the last Jewish Aristotelian thinkers.²² Nevertheless, he maintained that some Aristotelian views (such as the eternity of the universe) were incompatible with Torah, and that, in fact, one can refute Aristotle based on the Torah.²³ Despite his own educational background, Sforno viewed Torah as entirely self-sufficient and as a source for refuting incorrect philosophical views.²⁴

Methods

• Methods of Explaining Torah's Purposes and Organization
  • Broad Scope Overviews
    • Introduction to Torah Commentary – In his introduction, Sforno briefly explains the main messages of the Torah, surveying the contents of each of the Torah's five books. Sforno states in a general way that the Torah is meant to teach of God's power, righteousness, and goodness, and to explain God's purpose in creation and in choosing the Jewish people to receive the Torah.²⁵
    • Ma'amar Kavvanot HaTorah – See outline above in the Parts of the Commentary section.
  • Structure of Entire Sections²⁶
    • Theme of a series of sections – Sforno will sometimes posit a theme for a series of sections that at first glance seem random. Examples of such sections include: Vayikra 11-19,²⁷ Vayikra 19-20,²⁸ Vayikra 22-23,²⁹ Bemidbar 1-9,³⁰ Devarim 14-25³¹
    • Internal structure of section components – Sforno endeavors to explain the rationale behind collections of seemingly arbitrary details within a section. Examples of such collections include: Shemot 34:17-26,³² Vayikra 19,³³ Vayikra 20.³⁴
  • Explanation of juxtapositions through cause and effect – The content of the second section is somehow caused by the content of the preceding section. Sforno's cause and effect explanations often imply ethical or spiritual lessons.
    • Cause and effect in juxtaposed narratives³⁵
    • Cause and effect in juxtaposed commandments³⁶
  • Apparent non-sequitur that makes a narrative point – See for example Sforno's commentaries to Bereshit 35:21-22 (Reuven's sin),³⁷ and Shemot 6:14-27 (partial tribal genealogy)³⁸
• Reasons for the commandments (Ta'amei HaMitzvot)³⁹ – Explaining the reasons and purposes of the commandments in a rational manner forms a major component of Sforno's exegetical work. Sforno's purview included even apparently irrational mitzvot often viewed as chukim.⁴⁰ Sforno's motivation may have been to respond to contemporary Jewish heretics who ridiculed the Torah, and to Christian critique that saw no value in the Torah's practical commandments.⁴¹ Sforno, as a Maimonidean thinker, would in any case likely have been interested in ta'amei hamitzvot, as Rambam repeatedly emphasized the need to rationally investigate the reasons for the mitzvot.⁴²

  Types of explanations - Sforno's approach to the mitzvot is rationalistic. Among other types of interpretations, Sforno explains that some mitzvot are pragmatic (even medical),⁴³ some are symbolic acts meant to remind the Jew of certain religious ideas,⁴⁴ some are acts of imitatio dei,⁴⁵ some are intended to perfect a person's personality traits,⁴⁶ and some are meant to engender certain religious feelings and attitudes.⁴⁷ Sforno may have also had anti-Christian polemical interests in explaining the commandments.⁴⁸

• Attitude to Rabbinic exegesis⁴⁹ – Sforno rejects non-peshat Aggadic readings while utilizing Rabbinic ideas for his own peshat exegesis. Sforno's commentary generally ignores Midrash Halakhah, discussing Halakhic details only when relevant to broader exegetical issues.⁵⁰ Examples:⁵¹ the quarrel between the shepherds of Lot and Avraham⁵², the infant Moshe and the maidens of Paroh's daughter ⁵³
• Repetitive clauses and verses should be interpreted differently⁵⁴ – Sforno tried to explain ostensibly repetitive sections, verses, and clauses as each having a unique message.⁵⁵
• Punctuation of the Ta'amei HaMikra (cantillations) is not binding⁵⁶ – Sforno did not feel bound to punctuate verses in accordance with Ta'amei HaMikra. While most of his interpretations fit with the traditional punctuation, he differs from it more often than did his medieval predecessors.⁵⁷ Beyond re-punctuation of phrases within verses, Sforno will sometimes read through an end-of-verse mark, or even split a verse in half, with the first half belonging to the previous verse, and the second half belonging to the following verse. ⁵⁸

Themes

• Ideal states, deteriorations, and restorations of the ideal – The Divine Plan to bestow the ultimate good upon mankind adjusts to human failure. This entails changes in the natural world, the divine historical plan, and the laws of the Torah.
  • After Adam's initial state of human perfection,⁵⁹ humanity deteriorated over the course of the generations – through Adam's sin, and the generations of the flood,⁶⁰ and Tower of Babel⁶¹ – until the Patriarchs attained a level of perfection akin to Adam's initial state.⁶²
  • The Patriarchs' spiritual achievements culminated in the formation of a nation worthy of receiving the Torah at Sinai. Sinai marked the restoration of the Eden ideal,⁶³ but in a more limited fashion – only for one nation, not for all of humanity. The Divine Presence was originally intended to rest upon all of Israel in this state, and not just in the Mishkan.⁶⁴
  • The sin of the Golden Calf marked the fall of the Israelites from the sublime level they had reached, and in the aftermath of the sin God commanded them to build the Mishkan and set up their camp in an appropriate manner so as to enable the Divine Presence to reside in the Mishkan.⁶⁵ Another significant result of the sin was the institution of sacrifices, which were not necessary in the Israelites' pre-sin ideal state.⁶⁶
  • Were it not for the sin of the spies, the Israelites would have entered the Land of Israel without war, with the gentiles simply fleeing before them. Due to the nation's post-sin spiritual level, it became necessary to conquer the land in a natural manner.⁶⁷ This new level also required the institution of the commandment of the challah tithe for the people to be worthy of divine blessings on their households.⁶⁸
  • In messianic times, the Jewish people will be restored to the ideal state briefly experienced by Adam at his creation, and by the Jewish people at Sinai.⁶⁹ The influence of the Divine Presence will not be limited to one place (as in the Mishkan after the sin of the Golden Calf), and the people will live eternally, in fulfillment of God's original plan for mankind.⁷⁰
• God does not abandon Israel – Despite sin and exile, God never abandons the Jews. This is a motif of Sforno's introduction to his commentary, and he continues to mention the theme with some frequency throughout his commentaries.⁷¹ While he does not engage in outright polemic, Sforno's emphasis of this theme serves to counteract Christian claims that God rejected the Jewish people because they sinned.
• Humanism – Sforno conveys in his writings an appreciation for the value of all of humankind, even in places where the biblical text seems to be emphasizing a Judeo-centric particularism. When God states "And you shall be My own treasure from among all peoples," Sforno stresses that all humans are dear to God.⁷² He understands the Jews' special status as a "kingdom of priests" as a responsibility to guide all of humanity to the true worship of God.⁷³ Sforno may have been influenced in these views by the humanistic milieu of Renaissance Italy, and by his personal contacts with non-Jews. He personally taught non-Jews Jewish studies, and sent some of his works to gentile acquaintances.⁷⁴
• Anti-Christian polemic – Fighting Christian ideology, and the inroads it was making in the Italian Jewish community, was a focus of Sforno's exegetical activity (though there are usually no explicit references to Christianity). In the introduction to his commentary, Sforno mentions Christian critique as part of his motivation to explain the Torah. Also his commentary to Iyyov was partially intended to refute certain Christian views.⁷⁵ Sforno's efforts at explaining the purposes of Torah and reasons for the commandments (see sections above) also may have been connected with an anti-Christian agenda.⁷⁶
• Reward and punishment as a guiding principle in understanding history – Sforno tends to view major historical developments and shifts as resulting from reward and punishment, even in cases where the biblical text leaves room for the moral neutrality of the people involved.⁷⁷
• Spiritual reward – Sforno states that one of the purposes of his commentary was to address critics of the Torah's apparent emphasis on physical reward. He takes the position⁷⁸ that the physical blessings promised by God for fulfillment of the Torah are merely means to enable unfettered spiritual development, and not the ultimate reward, which is actually eternal spiritual bliss.⁷⁹

Textual Issues

• Manuscripts⁸⁰ – There exist differences among the manuscripts of Sforno's Torah commentary. The manuscripts also contain additions and corrections in the margins. It appears that Sforno prepared the first draft of his commentary while still in Rome (before moving to Bologna), and made extensive changes and additions over the years.
• Printings – The first printing (Venice, 1567) took place approximately 17 years after Sforno's death.⁸¹ This edition was based on the manuscript held by R. Ovadyah himself during the last years of his life.⁸²
• Textual layers – 

Sources

Significant Influences

• Earlier Sources – Rambam, Ramban
• Teachers – 
• Foils – 

Occasional Usage

• –

Possible Relationship

• –

Impact

Later exegetes

• –

Supercommentaries

• –

¹ The biographical information in this section is largely based on the introduction to the Mossad HaRav Kook edition of Sforno's Torah commentary, edited by Z. Gottlieb (ביאור על התורה לרבי עובדיה ספורנו, (Jerusalem, 1980); henceforth: Gottlieb, Biur).

² The name Sforno seems to refer to a place name in Italy.

³ His last name also appears as: ספורני, איש ספורני, מסופרנו, דספורנו, איש שפורנו, איספורנו, זפרוני, די ספורניס, ספורנו מציזינא.

⁴ In the Latin translation of his work Ohr Ammim, he refers to himself as Sphurnus.

⁵ He received a doctorate in medicine in Ferrara on April 27, 1501. In Rome, he earned a living by tutoring gentiles, including the well-known Hebrew scholar and humanist Johann Reichlin. Whom he tutored in Hebrew grammar and other Jewish studies.

⁶ In 1520, he was asked to rule on a controversial case of marriage.

⁷ See below for medical references in his commentary. While in Rome for approximately 30 years, R. Ovadyah had difficulty making a living and did not achieve renown as a physician. After moving to Bologna, where his brother lived, his medical reputation grew to the point where he was considered an expert physician.

⁸ According to Sforno's introduction to his commentary, it was Chananel who encouraged him to write the commentary.

⁹ This grandson was responsible for submitting R. Ovadyah's Torah commentary for publication.

¹⁰ See below.

¹¹ Shir HaShirim and Kohelet were printed in the Venice edition of Sforno's Torah commentary. Sforno dedicated and sent the commentary on Kohelet to King Henry II of France, who was a personal acquaintance. There are no extant manuscripts of the Shir HaShirim commentary.

¹² The commentaries on Yonah, Chavakkuk, Zekharyah seem to consist of an initial draft that was to serve as the basis for a more complete version. They were printed in the book Likkutei Shoshanim by R. David Ibn Chin in Venice, 1602, and subsequently in Kehilat Moshe (Amsterdam 1724/7). There are also extant manuscripts.

¹³ A philosophical commentary intended to refute Christian views and demonstrate the Torah view of divine providence and reward and punishment (see the author's introduction). This commentary was composed when Sforno was in Rome. See Epistles 4 and 5 in Z. Gottlieb, ed., "כתבי רבי עובדיה ספורנו" (Jerusalem, 1980).

¹⁴ A verse by verse commentary based largely on the Targum and Midrash Shocher Tov, along with other commentators. The author composed two introductions – one short and one long. The long introduction attempts to explain the structure of the entire book of Tehillim (see below regarding Sforno's emphasis on organization and structure). In the short introduction, Sforno speaks of the eternal spiritual bliss destined for the Jewish nation. Each psalm is given a heading that encapsulates the content of that particular psalm.

¹⁵ This can explain the inconsistencies between the commentary and the index. See Gottlieb, Biur: 17 and note 80. The list apparently was included in the manuscript that the Venice edition is based on.

¹⁶ It likely also appeared in the manuscript that the Venice edition is based on.

¹⁷ Here is a brief outline of its contents:

• Motives for composition of Ohr Ammim
• The Torah's objectives include both action and philosophical investigation – The reasons for seven different types of action are discussed, as well as the purpose of the stories of the Patriarchs.
• Prior to the Golden Calf, Israel had no need for the Mishkan and sacrificial service
• Reasons for details of the Mishkan and sacrificial service
• Discussion of ritual impurity, demons, righteous souls after death
• Discussion of resuscitation of the dead and the World to Come

¹⁸ See above regarding Ma'amar Kavvanot HaTorah, and below concerning reasons for the commandments.

¹⁹ This seems to have been a part of Sforno's effort to defend Torah against the critique of contemporary Jewish heretics and Christians. See the beginning of Sforno's introduction to his commentary.

²⁰ Gottlieb, Biur: 24. Sforno also generally refuses to repeat commentaries, which sometimes leads to out of place interpretations. That is, when Sforno cites and interprets a Torah verse in the context of explaining a different verse, he does not repeat the commentary in the other relevant location. This is true whether the cited verse comes before or after the verse that is the main focus of the comment (see M. Rachimi, "פרשנות פנים-מקראית בפירושי רבי עובדיה ספורנו," Talelei Orot 13 (2007): 75-77).

²¹ Gottlieb, Biur: 22.

²² This is expressed, for example, in Sforno's view of the primary goal of Torah as being intellectual perfection, and in his view of the body and behavioral virtues as serving the intellect. See Ma'amar Kavvanot HaTorah. In Sforno's Torah commentary, Rambam's influence can be felt, for example, in Sforno's interpretation of the Garden of Eden story (see Rambam's interpretation in Moreh Nevukhim 1:2), and in his efforts to explain the mitzvot rationally. See, however, D. Schwartz, "הפרשנות הפילוסופית לתורה של רבי עובדיה ספורנו" Machanayyim 4 (5753): 250-257, who discusses points of divergence between Sforno and Rambam.

²³ See the discussion of Ohr Ammim in the Works section above.

²⁴ See Sforno's commentary to Pirkei Avot 2:19 and 5:25.

²⁵ Following are some of the unique perspectives and emphases expressed in Sforno's introduction:

• Bereshit – This book describes God's power – meant to engender fear of God, and His goodness and kindness to the world (especially to man) – meant to engender love of God. Love and fear of God will lead to a desire to imitate God and follow in His ways. Bereshit further lays out fundamental principles such as divine creation, divine providence, the existence of non-physical entities including the human soul, and the existence of a divine plan for the world. God is described as repeatedly setting humans on a path toward spiritual success and fulfilment, helping them recover after each human failure. The historical failures of the general human race lead God to focus on Avraham and his descendants in order to fulfill the purpose of creation. Besides the lessons implied by the Patriarch's behavior, their life events additionally serve as precursors to the future history of the Jewish people. [See section below regarding Ma'ase Avot Siman LeBanim.]
• Shemot – The book relates how the Israelites were enslaved after violating the covenant of the forefathers and adopting the Egyptian religion (see Purposes of the Egyptian Bondage) and later saved after some of them returned to God. Also related is how God elevated the people to a high spiritual level, only to see them sin with the Golden Calf. Despite the great sin, God continued to seek the Israelites' betterment, and commanded them to build the Mishkan to enable the Divine Presence to reside among them.
• Vayikra – The third book of the Torah describes the sacrificial service and laws of purity that are necessary for maintenance of the Divine Presence in the camp, as well as special times for communal worship. The latter portion of Vayikra records the commandments of the Sabbatical Year and Jubilee, through which the Israelites are to merit possession of the land of Canaan; the worldly bounty God will bestow upon them there in order to enable unfettered divine service; and the curses God will bring upon them for disobedience. Despite their future disloyalty, God reassures the nation that He will save them after they have reached a desperate state.
• Bemidbar – The first part of Bemidbar describes how God prepared the Israelite camp to make an immediate miraculous entry into the land of Canaan without need for war. The narrative then mentions the deeds by which the Israelites became worthy to enter the land. The rest of the book relates the spiritual fall of the Israelites in the sin of the spies and subsequent sins, and how – despite it all – God refused to abandon His people and brought them to the brink of entry to the land once again.
• Devarim – The Torah's last book relates how Moshe explains to the Israelites that their sins brought them to a state where they must enter the land without him as leader. He then prepares them with commandments that will enable them to successfully remain in the land, and commandments that apply specifically to Eretz Yisrael. He further sets out the procedure for enacting a new covenant to replace the covenant of Sinai that was violated in the sin of the spies. Moshe's words conclude with blessings and prophecies about messianic times, and how God will redeem the Jews after they reach a state of total desperation in exile. The Torah ends with an affirmation of the supremacy of Moshe over all prophets, and, thus, the inability of any future prophet to change the Torah.

²⁶ Much of the following section is based on M. Rachimi, "סמיכות פרשיות בפירושו של ספורנו לתורה," Talelei Orot 12 (2005): 1-17.

²⁷ Sforno 19:2.

²⁸ Sforno 20:2.

²⁹ Sforno 23:2.

³⁰ Sforno 9:1.

³¹ Throughout the course of these chapters, Sforno has commentaries that explain the themes of its various parts. Relevant comments include: 15:19, 16:18, 19:2, 21:10, 22:13, 23:16, 23:20, 25:11, 25:14-15.

³² Sforno 34:18.

³³ Sforno 19:9-10.

³⁴ Sforno 20:2.

³⁵ See Sforno Bereshit 21:1 – Sarah conceives following Avraham's prayer for Avimelekh; 23:2 - Sarah's death following Rivkah's birth; Bereshit 38:1 - story of Yehudah and Tamar (Bereshit 38) interrupts the account of the sale of Yosef; Shemot 17:8 – Amalek's attack follows the Israelites' shortage of water.

³⁶ Examples: Sforno Shemot 31:13 (Mishkan construction and Shabbat), Vayikra 13:2 (niddah and tzaraat), 20:8-9 (illicit sexual relations and cursing of parents), 26:1-2 (slavery laws, Shabbat, and idolatry).

³⁷ The account of Reuven's sin is positioned between the narrative of the birth of Binyamin (35:16-20) and the now finalized list of Yaakov's twelve sons. Sforno understands that the narrative point of this sequence is to show that, despite the sin, Yaakov did not disown Reuven (as shown by his inclusion in the list), for Yaakov was certain that Reuven had immediately repented.

³⁸ This genealogy interrupts a dialogue between God and Moshe, following the Israelites failure to listen to Moshe. Sforno understands that the genealogy here is to inform the audience of Moshe's and Aharon's worthiness to serve as leaders despite the Israelites' lack of responsiveness.

³⁹ The discussion in this section is partially based on M. Rachimi, "טעמי המצוות: אקטואליה ופולמוס דתי בתקופת הרנסנס," Talelei Orot 14 (2008): 105-122

⁴⁰ See for example Sforno's discussion of the Red Heifer (Bemidbar 19:2), and his discussions of exceptional mitzvot that seem particularly problematic: Devarim 13:7-12 and 21:18-22 regarding cases of exceptionally harsh punishment; Vayikra 18:18 regarding the exceptional prohibition to marry the sister of one's wife; Bemidbar 30:2 regarding the exceptional status of women's vows. See also Sforno Shemot 13:14, 29:22-24, Vayikra 15:32, 16:5, 19:19-20, Devarim 16:8, 21:4.

⁴¹ See the beginning of the introduction to his commentary, where he explains that he was moved to write a commentary to respond to heretical Jewish critics of Torah, as well as Christian critics.

⁴² See Mishneh Torah Hilchot Me'ilah 8:8; Hilchot Temurah 4:13; and Rambam's own explanations for the mitzvot in Part III of More Nevukhim.

⁴³ For pragmatic considerations see Sforno Shemot 22:2 (destitute thief sold into slavery), Vayikra 21:4 (priests must avoid contact with the dead), Devarim 5:12 (resting of animals and slaves on Shabbat), Devarim 7:25 (prohibition to take gold and silver from idols), Devarim20:19 (prohibition to destroy fruit tree during siege), Devarim 21:5 (presence of priests and elders at the Eglah Arufah ceremony). For medical explanations see Sforno Vayikra 12:3-4, 13:2, 15:2.

⁴⁴ See for example Sforno Bemidbar 15:39-41; Devarim 6:6.

⁴⁵ See for example Sforno Vayikra 19:2 and 19:9-10.

⁴⁶ See Sforno's discussion of non-kosher foods in Vayikra 11:2.

⁴⁷ See for example Sforno's lengthy discussion of the laws of sacrifices in Ma'amar Kavvanot HaTorah.

⁴⁸ Although there is no explicit reference to Christian critique, Sforno seems to attempt to explain commandments that became focuses of Jewish-Christian debate. Such commandments include the Sabbath (Sforno Shemot 16:28), forbidden foods (Sforno Vayikra 11:2), and kilayim (Sforno Vayikra 19:19-20). See the discussion in Rachimi, "טעמי המצוות": 115-121.

⁴⁹ This section is largely based on G. Ravnah, "עיונים בפרשנותו של רבי עובדיה ספורנו השונה מפרשנות חז"ל," Shemaatin 178 (2011): 135-145.

⁵⁰ See M. Rachimi, "סמיכות פרשיות בפירושו של ספורנו לתורה," Talelei Orot 12 (2005): 7.

⁵¹ For further examples of Sforno's use of Rabbinic interpretation, see Ravnah, עיונים, where he discusses Sforno's commentaries to Shemot 25:9; Vayikra 1:2, 10:1; Bemidbar 11:15, 13:20, 15:16; Devarim 6:5, 12:23-25.

⁵² See Sforno Bereshit 13:7 – Sforno rejects the speculative Midrashic claim (Bereshit Rabbah 41:5) that the quarrel was about theft resulting from Lot's shepherds' assumption that Lot would inherit Avraham. Later, however, Sforno borrows the idea of the Midrash in order to explain a peshat element in Bereshit 13:14 (see Sforno on this verse).

⁵³ See Sforno Shemot 2:5. Sforno strips away overly speculative elements of the Aggadic account in Sotah 12b, while employing one of its main ideas – the maidens' opposition to saving Moshe – to explain the textual distinction between the maidens (נערותיה) and the handmaid (אמתה).

⁵⁴ Examples include: Sforno Bereshit 14:23, 34:13 , Shemot 11:1, and Devarim 4:29-30.

⁵⁵ However, he accepted the principle that "the Torah spoke in the language of men" (Berachot 31b and elsewhere) in reference to doubled words, synonyms, and parallel hemistiches in biblical poetry, meaning that he saw no need to distinguish multiple meanings in these cases. See Rachimi, טעמי המקרא: 270, and see his doctoral thesis, פירוש רבי עובדיה ספורנו לתורה – כללים ומגמות , Bar Ilan University (2006): 311-313.

⁵⁶ This section is largely based on M. Rachimi, "טעמי המקרא בפירוש רבי עובדיה ספורנו לתורה," Mayyim MiDalyav 18 (2007): 263-276.

⁵⁷ M. Rachimi (טעמי המקרא: 264-265) suggests that Sforno was influenced by the work of his contemporary, R. Eliyahu Ashkenazi (1468-1549), who argued that the traditional cantillation marks post-date the Talmud.

⁵⁸ Examples include: Sforno Bereshit 23:17-18, Shemot 11:1, 15:9-10, 25:8-9, 32:32, Devarim 4:29-30, 26:5, and the examples cited above in the section on repetitive clauses.

⁵⁹ See Sforno Bereshit 2:25.

⁶⁰ Whose sins resulted in God permanently changing weather conditions. According to Sforno, prior to the flood the sun's path was such that every day was an equinox, and the resultant weather was stable and mild. The flood entailed an astronomical change that produced the familiar cycle of the seasons and unstable weather conditions. In messianic times, God will restore the world to its original astronomical and climatic state. See Sforno Bereshit 8:22.

⁶¹ Whose dispersion resulted in shorter human lifespan, as the people were abruptly exposed to new climatic conditions. See Sforno Bereshit 10:25.

⁶² See Sforno Bereshit 30:16.

⁶³ See Sforno Shemot 19:6, where he says that had the Israelites not sinned with the Golden Calf, they would have lived forever, as God intended to bring upon them then all the good of messianic times.

⁶⁴ See Sforno Shemot 24:18, 25:9, 31:18. Furthermore, had it not been for the sin of the Golden Calf, the people would have received the entire Torah immediately at Sinai, written directly by God Himself. The spiritual fall resulted in the Torah being given to the people piecemeal through the agency of Moshe. See Sforno Shemot 24:12, 34:27.

⁶⁵ See Sforno Shemot 24:18, Bemidbar 9:1. God further instituted certain commandments to assist the people in achieving a higher spiritual state. These commandments include laws of forbidden foods, laws of forbidden sexual relations, and laws regarding ritual purity. See Sforno Vayikra 11:2. See also Sforno Bemidbar 3:7 regarding the changed role of the Sanhedrin after the sin.

⁶⁶ See Ma'amar Kavvanot HaTorah. See also Sforno Bemidbar 15:2-3, 28:6, regarding the post-sin need for meal-offerings and wine libations.

⁶⁷ See Sforno Bemidbar 10:35, 23:22.

⁶⁸ See Sforno Bemidbar 15:20. See also immediately below regarding changes in sacrifices.

⁶⁹ See Shiurei Sforno on Tehillim 29:1.

⁷⁰ See Sforno Vayikra 26:12. The natural world will also be restored to its ideal state - see Sforno Bereshit 8:22.

⁷¹ See Sforno Shemot 34:10, Vayikra 25:18, 26:18,28, Devarim 31:18, 32:19,26, 33:29, Tehillim 14:7, 76:2, 124:2-8, Ma'amar Kavvanot HaTorah. See also Gottlieb, Biur: 85.

⁷² Sforno Shemot 19:5. Also see his similar comment in Devarim 33:3.

⁷³ See Sforno Shemot 19:6, and his commentary on Avot 3:18. See also Sforno's comment to Devarim 23:21, where he understands that God will bless the Jews especially for acting honorably towards gentiles; and his comment to Shemot 7:3, where Sforno highlights God's concern for the repentance of the Egyptian nation (see the Hardened Hearts topic page).

⁷⁴ He tutored the humanist Johann Reuchlin in Hebrew language, and dedicated his major philosophical work Ohr Ammim (Light of the Nations) to King Henry II of France. He also translated it into Latin to enable access to a gentile readership.

⁷⁵ See the introduction to his commentary.

⁷⁶ Also see above, section on God not abandoning Israel.

⁷⁷ A notable example is his understanding that both the Egyptian enslavement and the Exodus resulted from God punishing or rewarding the Israelites' behavior. See the above summary of Sforno's introduction in the Broad Scope Overviews section, and the above theme Ideal States, Deteriorations, and Restorations of the Ideal.

⁷⁸ Following Rambam in Mishneh Torah Hilkhot Teshuvah, Chapter 9.

⁷⁹ See Ma'amar Kavvanot HaTorah and Sforno Shemot 19:6. Sforno also utilizes the Rabbinic idea that "the reward for a mitzvah is a mitzvah" (see Sforno Bereshit 18:17, 22:18, 30:30).

⁸⁰ For a discussion of the manuscripts and printings, see Gottlieb, Biur: 60-64.

⁸¹ The Mosad HaRav Kook edition is based mainly on this printing.

⁸² The manuscript was given to the publisher R. Shelomo Luzzatto by the author's grandson. See Gottlieb, Biur: 17. This manuscript reflected the final version of Sforno's commentary.