Dictionary:Cognates and Loanwords/0

Lexical: Cognates and Loanwords

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Akkadian Cognates

•  אַדְמָתוֹ – The phrase "וְכִפֶּר אַדְמָתוֹ עַמּוֹ" in Devarim 32:43 is difficult from a syntactic perspective. Who is the subject of the verb "כִפֶּר" – Hashem, the nation, or the land?  Who or what is the object?  How do the words "אַדְמָתוֹ" and "עַמּוֹ" relate to each other?
• While RashiDevarim 32:43About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki¹ suggests that the verse should be read as if written, "וְכִפֶּר אַדְמָתוֹ ועַמּוֹ", that Hashem will make expiation for both the land and people, RalbagDevarim Beur HaMilot 32:43About R. Levi b. Gershom suggests that it be understood as if written "וְכִפֶּר אדמת עַמּוֹ",‎² that Hashem will purify the land of His nation.  Ibn EzraDevarim 32:43About R. Avraham ibn Ezra offers a third possibility, "וכפר עמו [על] אדמתו",‎³ that the nation itself will expiate the land.
• Tur Sinai⁴ has suggested that the word "אַדְמָתוֹ" is related to the Akkadian, "adamaֿtu", used in poetic passages to mean "red blood". Hashem will expiate not the land of His nation (which is not mentioned in the verse), but their blood that has been spilled.  The second half of the verse is thus intrinsically tied to the earlier clause, "דַם עֲבָדָיו יִקּוֹם". 
• In contrast to most of the above explanations, Y. Avishur⁵ suggests a reading that does not entail adding or deleting letters/words from the verse, proposing that the phrase means "וכפר דמעות עמו,"‎⁶ similar to the Akkadian, "dimtassa ikkapar".  After avenging the nation's blood, Hashem will wipe away (כפר = מחה), the nation's tears.
• אֱלִיל – All agree that the noun "אֱלִיל" generally means idol, but the etymology of the word is unclear. RashiYirmeyahu 14:14About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and R"Y KaraYirmeyahu 14:14About R. Yosef Kara suggest that it might come from the word "אַל" meaning nought. In contrast, V. Hurowitz⁷ and H. Tawil⁸ propose that it might be related to Akkadian, with Hurowitz connecting it to Enlil, head god of the Sumerian pantheon, and Tawil relating it to the Akkadian "ulalu", meaning worthless. The latter possibility might explain various verses in which the normal translation of idol is less fitting:⁹
• Yirmeyahu 14:14: "שֶׁקֶר הַנְּבִאִים נִבְּאִים בִּשְׁמִי.. וְלֹא דִבַּרְתִּי אֲלֵיהֶם חֲזוֹן שֶׁקֶר וְקֶסֶם [וֶאֱלִיל] (ואלול)" - Yirmeyahu claims that the visions of false prophets are lies and things of nought.
• Zekharyah 11:17: " הוֹי רֹעִי הָאֱלִיל עֹזְבִי הַצֹּאן" – Zecharyah speaks of worthless shepherds who abandon their sheep.
• Iyyov 13:4: "אַתֶּם טֹפְלֵי שָׁקֶר רֹפְאֵי אֱלִל כֻּלְּכֶם" – Iyyov tells his friends that they are like physicians of no value, for their attempts to comfort are futile.
• Tehillim 96:5, " כִּי כׇּל אֱלֹהֵי הָעַמִּים אֱלִילִים" Though this verse is often understood to mean, "all the nation's gods are idols," a smoother translation might understand "אֱלִיל", here too, as an adjective:all the nations' gods are worthless".
• בוּל – This word appears only twice in Tanakh, in Yeshayahu 44:19, "לְבוּל עֵץ אֶסְגּוֹד" and in Iyyov 40:20: "כִּי בוּל הָרִים יִשְׂאוּ לוֹ וְכׇל חַיַּת הַשָּׂדֶה יְשַׂחֲקוּ שָׁם".
• ברית – Though all agree that "בְּרִית" refers to a covenant, the etymology of the word  is debated. Some¹⁰ have suggested that it comes from the root ברה and relates to the shared meal that would have accompanied the treaty, while others posit that it might relate to the verb ברא used in Yehoshua 17:15 and Yechezkel 23:47, meaning "to cut".¹¹  H. Tadmor also brings the opinion that the word relates to the Akkadian "biritu" which means bond or tie, or, alternatively to the Akkadian "birit" which means "between" (and might refer to the covenantal ceremony of passing between pieces of a slaughtered animal). To see how each possibility might relate to various aspects of treaty-making, see Treaties in Tanakh and the Ancient Near East.
• דן – In Akkadian "dunnu" / "dunnunu" relates to strength.¹²   Applying this meaning to several verses in Tanakh in which the more common definition of "to judge" or "execute judgement"  is less fitting might be illuminating:
• Bereshit 30:6: "וַתֹּאמֶר רָחֵל דָּנַנִּי אֱלֹהִים וְגַם שָׁמַע בְּקֹלִי".  It is difficult to understand why Rachel would be saying that Hashem "judged" her at the moment of granting her a child.¹³  If, however, "דָּנַנִּי" is related to the Akkadian "dunnunu",¹⁴ Rachel might simply be thanking Hashem for giving her strength through the child.
• Devarim 32:36: "כִּי יָדִין י״י עַמּוֹ וְעַל עֲבָדָיו יִתְנֶחָם" – Hashem's judging of the nation in the first clause of the verse appears at odds with the continuation which speaks of Hashem's compassion on the people. As such, most commentators understand the verse to mean that Hashem will avenge His nation (i.e. judge their enemies, not them). Alternatively, in light of the Akkadian, it might mean that Hashem will strengthen His nation.  This works well with the end of the verse which explains the necessity of Hashem's intervention: "כִּי יִרְאֶה כִּי אָזְלַת יָד וְאֶפֶס עָצוּר וְעָזוּב".  Since the nation has lost its power, Hashem will give it strength. 
• יֵשׁ – The word "יש" is commonly understood as a particle relating to ownership or being. Hurowitz¹⁵ notes that the Akkadian equivalent is "basu", often translated as "there is" but also meaning to"to exist". This verb has a noun form, "busu", which means possessions or valuables. As such, he suggests that it is possible that the Hebrew "יש" might similarly function as both a noun and verb, elucidating the meaning of several verses:
• Mishlei 8:21: "לְהַנְחִיל אֹהֲבַי יֵשׁ וְאֹצְרֹתֵיהֶם אֲמַלֵּא" – Commentators who read "יֵשׁ" as a verb are forced to posit that the verse is assuming an unspoken noun.  Thus, for example, Radak explains, "יש לי מתנה טובה להנחיל אותה לאוהבי".¹⁶ Hurowitz, instead, explain that the the word "יֵשׁ" is parallel to "אוצרות", and functions here as a noun, meaning valuables.
• Mishlei 13:23: רׇב אֹכֶל נִיר רָאשִׁים וְיֵשׁ נִסְפֶּה בְּלֹא מִשְׁפָּט – Hurowitz suggests that perhaps here, too, "יֵשׁ" should be defined as wealth. If so, the verse might be highlighting the changing fortunes of people. The work of the poor might produce much food, while a person's wealth might dissipate.¹⁷
• כַּוָּנִים – This word appears in both Yirmeyahu 7:18 and 44:19¹⁸ and, due to the context of idolatry in both verses, is understood by RadakYirmeyahu 7:18Amos 5:26About R. David Kimchi and ShadalYirmeyahu 7:18Yirmeyahu 8:18About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto to refer to some type of food/cake offering.¹⁹  This meaning is supported by the Akkadian cognate, kamaֿnu, which refers to sweet cakes which were used in the worship of Ishtar.²⁰   This fits well with the full phrase "לַעֲשׂוֹת כַּוָּנִים לִמְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם‎" as Ishtar is also known "queen of the heavens" (מְלֶכֶת = מַלְכַּת).²¹ [Ishtar is further associated with the star Venus so even if one takes a more simple reading of "מְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם", it might refer to her specifically.]
• למד – This root generally refers to learning or teaching.  The verb appears in Shir HaShirim 8:2, "אֶנְהָגְךָ אֲבִיאֲךָ אֶל בֵּית אִמִּי תְּלַמְּדֵנִי" where it is commonly understood within the metaphoric understanding of the book to refer to instruction in Torah and mitzvot.²² It is less clear, though, what it would mean according to the simple sense of the verse.  S.M. Paul²³ notes that in Akkadian, lamadu can refer to sexual knowledge. [He compares it to the root "ידע" (and the Akkadian equivalent idu) which can also connote both intellectual and sexual knowledge, noting the relationship between learning/teaching (למד) and knowing (ידע).] Accordingly, the beloved would be speaking of her hopes to engage in relations with her lover.
• מַבְלִיגִיתִי – This word is a hapax legomenon, appearing only in Yirmeyahu 8:18: "מַבְלִיגִיתִי עֲלֵי יָגוֹן עָלַי לִבִּי דַוָּי".  Many commentators²⁴ connect it to the verb "בלג", and from context, understand it to be a noun meaning strength or restraint.²⁵  In contrast, Y. Avishur suggests that it is the feminine form of "מבליג" which is parallel to the Akkadian balaggu, referring to either a musical instrument or song.  The verse would mean "and my instrument turned for me into grief", similar to Iyyov 30:31, "וַיְהִי לְאֵבֶל כִּנֹּרִי".
• מֵרֵעֵהוּ – The root "מרע" appears in several places in Tanakh, in Bereshit 26:26,²⁶ Shofetim 14-15, Shemuel II 3:8 and Mishlei 19:7.  In each case, commentators define it as a friend or companion.  The context of Bereshit 26, however, might make one question whether this is the most fitting translation there too. The verses speak of the covenant between Avimelekh and Yitzchak, stating "וַאֲבִימֶלֶךְ הָלַךְ אֵלָיו מִגְּרָר וַאֲחֻזַּת מֵרֵעֵהוּ וּפִיכֹל שַׂר צְבָאוֹ". Why would Avimelekh bring both his military commander and a mere "friend" to negotiate? V. A. Hurowitz suggests that perhaps "מֵרֵעֵהוּ" in this verse is equivalent to the Akkadian "merhu", meaning שר הרועים. Avimelekh brought two important officers with him, not one of his friends.²⁷
• נהה – In both Yechezkel 32:8 and Mikhah 2:4, this root means wail or lament.²⁸  However, this definition is more difficult to apply to Shemuel I 7:2, "וַיִּנָּהוּ כׇּל בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל אַחֲרֵי י״י".  What would it mean that the nation "lamented after Hashem"? RadakYirmeyahu 7:18Yirmeyahu 8:18Amos 5:26About R. David Kimchi suggests that the verse might mean that the nation cried as they repented of their ways. ²⁹ M. Weinfeld³⁰ offers a different explanation in light of Akkadian, suggesting that "נהה" is related to the Akkadian ne'u, meaning "to turn to": The verse states simply that the nation turned back to Hashem.
• נְחֹשֶׁת – Throughout Tanakh, "נְחֹשֶׁת" means copper, yet this meaning is difficult in Yechezkel 16:36: "יַעַן הִשָּׁפֵךְ נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ וַתִּגָּלֶה עֶרְוָתֵךְ".  From context, most commentators understand the phrase "הִשָּׁפֵךְ נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" to be parallel to "וַתִּגָּלֶה עֶרְוָתֵךְ." Thus, RashiYechezkel 16:36About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and RadakYechezkel 16:36About R. David Kimchi suggest that "נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" means the women's edge or bottom, pointing as evidence to the verse "וְחָרָה נְחֻשְׁתָּהּ" (Yechezkel 24:11) and the Mishnaic phrase³¹ "נחשתו של תנור" which speak of the bottom of a vessel.³² I. Gluska³³ agrees that the two halves of the verse are parallel, but suggests that the word "נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" should be understood in light of its Akkadain cognate, nahsati/u, meaning a women's menstrual flow.
• סֻלָּם – Though often translated as "ladder,"³⁴ the word סֻלָּם is actually a hapax legomenon (appearing only in Bereshit 28:12) whose exact meaning is unknown.  The word might stem from the Hebrew root סלל which relates to a path or ramp, or alternatively to the Akkadian "simmiltu" which means a stairway. The latter possibility has led many scholars to suggest that what Yaakov saw in his dream was actually a ziqqurat, a stepped Mesopotamian temple which was believed to connect heaven and earth.³⁵  Prof. Elitzur³⁶ explains that the allusion to such temples is actually meant to mock them.  In contrast to Mesopotamian beliefs, Torah teaches that to connect to Hashem, one need not build a fancy temple, as even in a lowly open field, Yaakov is able to see "ה' נִצָּב עָלָיו".‎³⁷
• פֹּת – Yirmeyahu 3:17 reads, "וְשִׂפַּח אֲדֹנָי קׇדְקֹד בְּנוֹת צִיּוֹן וַי״י פׇּתְהֵן יְעָרֶה".  The meaning of the word "פׇּתְהֵן" is unclear. Ibn EzraYeshayahu 3:17About R. Avraham ibn Ezra³⁸ and RadakYeshayahu 3:17About R. David Kimchi suggests that it refers to a woman's private parts, which Hashem is to unveil.³⁹ Ibn EzraYeshayahu 3:17About R. Avraham ibn Ezra and ShadalYeshayahu 3:17About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto also bring the alternative possibility that the word פֹּת is somewhat parallel to "קׇדְקֹד", with Ibn Ezra relating it the word "פאה" (head of hair) and Shadal to the Aramaic "אפותא," meaning forehead. A closer cognate might be the Akkadian "putu", also meaning forehead.⁴⁰

Egyptian

¹ See also Onkelos and the first opinion brought by Ibn Ezra

² He writes, "רוצה לומר: וטהר אדמתו, אדמת עמו". See also Shadal who cites Rosenmüller and Gesenius as explaining similarly, "אדמתו של עמו, אדמת עמו". If so, the verse might be compared to others which similarly have an extra vav, such as Tehillim 50:10, "כִּי לִי כׇל חַיְתוֹ יָעַר" (meaning חית יער) or Bemidbar 24:3, "נְאֻם בִּלְעָם בְּנוֹ בְעֹר" (meaning בן בעור).

³ According to him, the subject of "אַדְמָתוֹ" is not Hashem but the nation itself.

⁴ See Tur Sinai, "וכפר אדמתו עמו (דברים לב, מג)", Tarbiz 24:2 (1955): 232.

⁵ See: י. אבישור, "מלים וצירופים מהמקרא לאור מקביליהם באכדית", שנתון לחקר המקרא והמזרח הקדום ב' (תשל"ז): 11-16.

⁶ In this he follows H. L. Ginsburg, "סיום שירת האזינו (דברים לב, לד—מג)", Tarbiz 24:1 (1955): 1-3, who connects "אדמתו" to the Ugaritic "אדמעת", meaning tears.

⁷ See V. Hurowitz, "הילכו שניים יחדיו? עיון במלווה אכדי חדש לעברית ולארמית של המקרא", Lĕšonénu: A Journal for the Study of the Hebrew Language and Cognate Subjects 35 (2010): 359-383.

⁸ See H. Tawil, An Akkadian Lexical Companion for Biblical Hebrew: Etymological-Semantic and Idiomatic Equivalents with Supplement on Biblical Aramaic (New Jersey, 2009).

⁹ In many of these, the word "אֱלִיל" appears to function as an adjective rather than a noun.

¹⁰ See H. Tadmor, "ברית ושבועת אמונים במזרח הקדום: גישתו של היסטוריון," Shenaton: An Annual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies 5-6 (1942-1943): 160-161, and the literature cited there.

¹¹ See also Ibn Ezra.

¹² The first form is a noun (strength) and the second an adjective (very strong). In verbal form, the root might mean to ratify or make legally binding. [As such, it is similar in usage to the word "תוקף"].

¹³ As such, many commentators suggest that the phrase "דָּנַנִּי אֱלֹהִים" refers to the original decree of barrenness. Rachel is justifying Hashem's making her barren, but simultaneously thanking Him for listening to her prayers and giving her a child. It is still somewhat difficult, though, that she would call her son "דן" focusing on the judgment rather than the cure.

¹⁴ The doubling of the nun might further support that in this verse the root is related to the Akkadian.

¹⁵ See V. A. Hurowitz, “Two Terms for Wealth in Proverbs VIII in Light of Akkadian.” Vetus Testamentum 50:2 (2000): 252–257.

¹⁶ See Rashi similarly, "יש אתי נחלה רבה".

¹⁷ According to this reading, it is not clear what the verse means to express by adding "בְּלֹא מִשְׁפָּט".

¹⁸ Radak suggests that the word " כִּיּוּן" in Amos 5:26  ("וְאֵת כִּיּוּן צַלְמֵיכֶם") might be related as well.

¹⁹ RadakAmos 5:26About R. David Kimchi raises the possibility that the word stems from the root כון, meaning to prepare.

²⁰ See M. Held, "עיונים בלקסיקוגרפיה המקראית לאור האכדית", Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies 16 (1982): 76-85.

²¹ The phrase "מְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם" appears in both verses in Yirmeyahu, and in each is spelled without the expected aleph (מלאכת השמים).  This allows for the possibility that it should be related to the root "מלך" and might be translated as "queen of the heavens".  Cf. Rashi who writes "כוכב הגדול היו קורין מלכת השמים ל׳ מלוכה". According to him, the verse likely refers to Venus, also associated with Ishtar.

²² See RashiShir HaShirim 8:2About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, Ibn EzraShir HaShirim First Commentary Midrash 8:2About R. Avraham ibn Ezra, and MalbimShir HaShirim 8:2About R. Meir Leibush Weiser.

²³ See S. M. Paul, "Gleanings from the Biblical and Talmudic Lexica in Light of Akkadian", Minhah le-aNahum ed. M. Brettler and M. Fishbane (Sheffield, 1993): 242-256.

²⁴ See RashiYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, R. Yosef KaraYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Yosef Kara, RadakYirmeyahu 8:18About R. David Kimchi, R. Yosef ibn KaspiYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Yosef ibn Kaspi.

²⁵ ShadalYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto brings another possibility, "cheerfulness".

²⁶ Commentators debate the role of the "mem" in the word "מֵרֵעֵהוּ" in this verse, with some suggesting it is part of the root (מרע) and others suggesting that it is secondary, and that the word means "מן הרעים שלו".

²⁷ It is also possible that even without the Akkadian cognate one can understand the verse to refer to an advisor or officer rather than a mere colleague.  See Divrei HaYamim I 27:33, "וַאֲחִיתֹפֶל יוֹעֵץ לַמֶּלֶךְ וְחוּשַׁי הָאַרְכִּי רֵעַ הַמֶּלֶךְ" where "רֵעַ" might be parallel to "יוֹעֵץ". If so, the word "מֵרֵעֵהוּ" in Bereshit 26:26 might then be translated as "מן הרעים שלו", that Avimelekh took "Achuzat, from among his advisors..."

²⁸ See also the noun forms, נהי and הי, which consistently mean lamentation.

²⁹ He also raises the possibility that נהה takes a totally different meaning in this verse and refers to gathering, similar to the word "נקוו‎". See Yirmeyahu 3:17, "וְנִקְווּ אֵלֶיהָ כׇל הַגּוֹיִם לְשֵׁם י"י" and Targum Yonatan there who explains, "וְיִתְנְהוֹן לְמִפְלַח בָּהּ כָּל עַמְמַיָא לִשְׁמָא דַייָ".

³⁰ See M. Weinfeld, "Jeremiah and the Spiritual Metamorphosis of Israel", ZAW 88:1 (1976): 17-56.  See also the discussion in I. Gluska, "מקראות סתומים לאור האכדית", Beit MIkra 34:4 (1989): 357-359.

³¹ See Mishna Keilim 8:3Keilim 8:3Keilim 9:1Keilim 9:3About the Mishna, 9:1Keilim 9:1About the Mishna, and 9:3Keilim 9:3About the Mishna.

³² In these cases, however, the connection to "נחושת" is still very evident, as the pot and oven are made of the metal.

³³ I. Gluska, "מקראות סתומים לאור האכדית", Beit MIkra 34:4 (1989): 357-359.

³⁴ This might be due to its contemporary usage.

³⁵ See discussion in Y. Peleg, "מהו ה'סלם' שראה יעקב בחלומו?‏‎" and the literature brought there.

³⁶ See his article, "מגדל בבל וסולם יעקב", reprinted in ישראל והמקרא (Jerusalem, 2000): 44-50.

³⁷ See also the discussion in Yaakov's Dream.

³⁸ See his second explanation.

³⁹ Ibn Ezra connects it to the word "הַפֹּתוֹת" in Melakhim I 7:50, but the word's meaning there is ambiguous as well.

⁴⁰ See H. Tawil, An Akkadian Lexical Companion for Biblical Hebrew: Etymological-Semantic and Idiomatic Equivalents with Supplement on Biblical Aramaic (New Jersey, 2009).