Dictionary:Cognates and Loanwords/0

Lexical: Cognates and Loanwords

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Akkadian

Often, when faced with a difficult word, scholars will often turn to cognate languages to aid in deciphering it. Sometimes, too, though there is no dispute about the meaning of a word or phrase, its deeper significance is only apparent in light of its usage in other Ancient Near Eastern texts.  Below is a list of terms whose meaning might be elucidated by looking at Akkadian equivalents.

Akkadian Cognates

•  אַדְמָתוֹ – The phrase "וְכִפֶּר אַדְמָתוֹ עַמּוֹ" in Devarim 32:43 is difficult from a syntactic perspective. Who is the subject of the verb "כִפֶּר" – Hashem, the nation, or the land?  Who or what is the object?  How do the words "אַדְמָתוֹ" and "עַמּוֹ" relate to each other?

• While RashiDevarim 32:43About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki¹ suggests that the verse should be read as if written, "וְכִפֶּר אַדְמָתוֹ ועַמּוֹ", that Hashem will make expiation for both the land and people, RalbagDevarim Beur HaMilot 32:43About R. Levi b. Gershom suggests that it be understood as if written "וְכִפֶּר אדמת עַמּוֹ",‎² that Hashem will purify the land of His nation.  Ibn EzraDevarim 32:43About R. Avraham ibn Ezra offers a third possibility, "וכפר עמו [על] אדמתו",‎³ that the nation itself will expiate the land.
• Tur Sinai⁴ has suggested that the word "אַדְמָתוֹ" is related to the Akkadian, "adamaֿtu", used in poetic passages to mean "red blood". Hashem will expiate not the land of His nation (which is not otherwise mentioned in the verse), but their blood that has been spilled.  This clause of the verse is thus intrinsically tied to the earlier clause, "דַם עֲבָדָיו יִקּוֹם". 
• In contrast to most of the above explanations, Y. Avishur⁵ suggests a reading that does not entail adding or deleting letters/words from the verse, proposing that the phrase means "וכפר דמעות עמו,"‎⁶ similar to the Akkadian, "dimtassa ikkapar".  After avenging the nation's blood, Hashem will wipe away (כפר = מחה), the nation's tears.
• אֱלִיל – The noun "אֱלִיל" is generally translated as idol, but the etymology of the word is unclear. RashiYirmeyahu 14:14About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and R"Y KaraYirmeyahu 14:14About R. Yosef Kara suggest that it might come from the word "אַל" meaning nought. In contrast, V. Hurowitz⁷ and H. Tawil⁸ propose that it might be related to Akkadian, with Hurowitz connecting it to Enlil, head god of the Sumerian pantheon, and Tawil relating it to the Akkadian "ulalu", meaning worthless. The latter possibility might explain various verses in which the normal translation of idol is less fitting:⁹
• Yirmeyahu 14:14: "שֶׁקֶר הַנְּבִאִים נִבְּאִים בִּשְׁמִי.. וְלֹא דִבַּרְתִּי אֲלֵיהֶם חֲזוֹן שֶׁקֶר וְקֶסֶם [וֶאֱלִיל] (ואלול)" - Yirmeyahu claims that the visions of false prophets are lies and things of nought.
• Zekharyah 11:17: " הוֹי רֹעִי הָאֱלִיל עֹזְבִי הַצֹּאן" – Zecharyah speaks of worthless shepherds who abandon their sheep.
• Iyyov 13:4: "אַתֶּם טֹפְלֵי שָׁקֶר רֹפְאֵי אֱלִל כֻּלְּכֶם" – Iyyov tells his friends that they are like physicians of no value, for their attempts to comfort are futile.
• Tehillim 96:5, " כִּי כׇּל אֱלֹהֵי הָעַמִּים אֱלִילִים" Though this verse is often understood to mean, "all the nations' gods are idols," a smoother translation might understand "אֱלִיל" here, too, as an adjective: "all the nations' gods are worthless".
• בְּרִית – Though all agree that "בְּרִית" refers to a covenant, the etymology of the word  is debated. Some¹⁰ have suggested that it comes from the root ברה‎¹¹‎ and relates to the shared meal that often accompanied the treaty, while others posit that it might relate to the verb ברא used in Yehoshua 17:15 and Yechezkel 23:47, meaning "to cut".¹²  H. Tadmor also brings the opinion that the word relates to the Akkadian "biritu" which means bond or tie, or, alternatively to the Akkadian "birit" which means "between" (and might refer to the covenantal ceremony of passing between pieces of a slaughtered animal). To see how each possibility might relate to various aspects of treaty-making, see Treaties in Tanakh and the Ancient Near East.
• דן – In Akkadian "dunnu" / "dunnunu" relates to strength.¹³ This meaning might illuminate several verses in Tanakh in which the more common definition of "to judge" or "execute judgement"  is less fitting:
• Bereshit 30:6: "וַתֹּאמֶר רָחֵל דָּנַנִּי אֱלֹהִים וְגַם שָׁמַע בְּקֹלִי".  It is difficult to understand why Rachel would be saying that Hashem "judged" her at the moment of granting her a child.¹⁴  If, however, "דָּנַנִּי" is related to the Akkadian "dunnunu",¹⁵ Rachel might simply be thanking Hashem for empowering and strengthening her in granting her wish.
• Devarim 32:36: "כִּי יָדִין י״י עַמּוֹ וְעַל עֲבָדָיו יִתְנֶחָם" – Hashem's judging of the nation in the first clause of the verse appears at odds with the continuation which speaks of Hashem's compassion on the people. As such, many commentators¹⁶ understand the verse to mean that Hashem will avenge His nation (i.e. judge their enemies, not them). Alternatively, in light of the Akkadian, it might mean that Hashem will strengthen the nation.  This works well with the end of the verse which explains the necessity of Hashem's intervention: "כִּי יִרְאֶה כִּי אָזְלַת יָד וְאֶפֶס עָצוּר וְעָזוּב".  Since the nation has lost its power, Hashem will provide it.¹⁷ 
• Zekharyah 3:7: "וְגַם אַתָּה תָּדִין אֶת בֵּיתִי" – This is one of the tasks given to Yehoshua, the high priest in the period of the return to Zion. RashiZekharyah 3:7-8About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and RadakZekharyah 3:7About R. David Kimchi suggest that in these words, Yehoshua is told to oversee/judge the Beit Hamikdash or priests.¹⁸  If one applies the Akkadian meaning of strength, however, it is possible that Hashem is telling Yehoshua to back and strengthen the house of Zerubavel,¹⁹ the political leader of the time (alluded to in the next verse, "כִּי הִנְנִי מֵבִיא אֶת עַבְדִּי צֶמַח").²⁰
• יֵשׁ – The word "יש" is commonly understood as a particle relating to ownership or being. V. Hurowitz²¹ notes that the Akkadian equivalent is "basu", often translated as "there is" but also meaning "to exist". This verb has a noun form, "busu", which means possessions or valuables. As such, he suggests that it is possible that the Hebrew "יש" might similarly function as both a noun and verb.  This understanding might elucidate the meaning of several verses:
• Mishlei 8:21: "לְהַנְחִיל אֹהֲבַי יֵשׁ וְאֹצְרֹתֵיהֶם אֲמַלֵּא" – Commentators who read "יֵשׁ" as a verb are forced to posit that the verse is assuming an unspoken noun.  Thus, for example, RadakShemuel I 7:2Melakhim II 9:30Yeshayahu 2:16Mishlei 8:21About R. David Kimchi explains, "יש לי מתנה טובה להנחיל אותה לאוהבי".‎²²  Hurowitz, instead, explains that the the word "יֵשׁ" is parallel to "אוצרות", and functions here as a noun, meaning valuables.
• Mishlei 13:23: רׇב אֹכֶל נִיר רָאשִׁים וְיֵשׁ נִסְפֶּה בְּלֹא מִשְׁפָּט – Hurowitz suggests that perhaps here, too, "יֵשׁ" should be defined as wealth. If so, the verse might be highlighting the changing fortunes of people. The work of even the poor might produce much food, while a person's wealth might dissipate.²³
• כַּוָּנִים – This word appears in both Yirmeyahu 7:18 and 44:19²⁴ and, due to the context of idolatry in both verses, is understood by RadakYirmeyahu 7:18Amos 5:26About R. David Kimchi and ShadalYirmeyahu 7:18Yirmeyahu 8:18About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto to refer to some type of food/cake offering.²⁵  This meaning is supported by the Akkadian cognate, kamaֿnu, which refers to sweet cakes which were used in the worship of Ishtar.²⁶   This fits well with the full phrase "לַעֲשׂוֹת כַּוָּנִים לִמְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם‎" as Ishtar is also known "queen of the heavens" (מְלֶכֶת = מַלְכַּת).²⁷ [Ishtar is further associated with the star Venus so even if one takes a more simple reading of "מְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם", it might refer to her specifically.]
• למד – This root generally refers to learning or teaching.  The verb appears in Shir HaShirim 8:2, "אֶנְהָגְךָ אֲבִיאֲךָ אֶל בֵּית אִמִּי תְּלַמְּדֵנִי" where it is commonly understood within the metaphoric understanding of the book to refer to instruction in Torah and mitzvot.²⁸ It is less clear, though, what it would mean according to the simple sense of the verse.  S.M. Paul²⁹ notes that in Akkadian, lamadu can refer to sexual knowledge. [He compares it to the root "ידע" (and the Akkadian equivalent idu) which can also connote both intellectual and sexual knowledge, noting the relationship between learning/teaching (למד) and knowing (ידע).] Accordingly, the beloved would be speaking of her hopes to engage in relations with her lover.
• מַבְלִיגִיתִי – This word is a hapax legomenon, appearing only in Yirmeyahu 8:18: "מַבְלִיגִיתִי עֲלֵי יָגוֹן עָלַי לִבִּי דַוָּי".  Many commentators³⁰ connect it to the verb "בלג", and from context, understand it to be a noun meaning strength or restraint.³¹  In contrast, Y. Avishur³² suggests that it is the feminine form of "מבליג" which is parallel to the Akkadian balaggu, referring to either a musical instrument or song.  The verse would mean "and my instrument turned for me into grief", similar to Iyyov 30:31, "וַיְהִי לְאֵבֶל כִּנֹּרִי".
• מֵרֵעֵהוּ – The root "מרע" appears in several places in Tanakh, in Bereshit 26:26,³³ Shofetim 14-15, Shemuel II 3:8 and Mishlei 19:7.  In each case, commentators define it as a friend or companion.  The context of Bereshit 26, however, might make one question whether this is the most fitting translation there as well. The verses speak of the covenant between Avimelekh and Yitzchak, stating "וַאֲבִימֶלֶךְ הָלַךְ אֵלָיו מִגְּרָר וַאֲחֻזַּת מֵרֵעֵהוּ וּפִיכֹל שַׂר צְבָאוֹ". Why would Avimelekh bring both his military commander and a mere "friend" to negotiate? V. Hurowitz³⁴ suggests that perhaps "מֵרֵעֵהוּ" in this verse is equivalent to the Akkadian "merhu", meaning שר הרועים. Avimelekh brought two important officers with him, not one of his friends.³⁵
• נהה – In both Yechezkel 32:8 and Mikhah 2:4, this root means wail or lament.³⁶  However, this definition is more difficult to apply to Shemuel I 7:2, "וַיִּנָּהוּ כׇּל בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל אַחֲרֵי י״י".  What would it mean that the nation "lamented after Hashem"? RadakYirmeyahu 7:18Yirmeyahu 8:18Amos 5:26About R. David Kimchi suggests that the verse might mean that the nation cried as they repented of their ways.³⁷ M. Weinfeld³⁸ offers a different explanation in light of Akkadian, suggesting that "נהה" is related to the Akkadian ne'u, meaning "to turn to": The verse states simply that the nation turned back to Hashem.
• נְחֹשֶׁת – Throughout Tanakh, "נְחֹשֶׁת" means copper, yet this meaning is difficult in Yechezkel 16:36: "יַעַן הִשָּׁפֵךְ נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ וַתִּגָּלֶה עֶרְוָתֵךְ".  From context, most commentators understand the phrase "הִשָּׁפֵךְ נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" to be parallel to "וַתִּגָּלֶה עֶרְוָתֵךְ." Thus, RashiYechezkel 16:36About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and RadakYechezkel 16:36About R. David Kimchi suggest that "נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" means the women's edge or bottom, pointing as evidence to the verse "וְחָרָה נְחֻשְׁתָּהּ" (Yechezkel 24:11) and the Mishnaic phrase³⁹ "נחשתו של תנור" which speak of the bottom of a vessel.⁴⁰ I. Gluska⁴¹ agrees that the two halves of the verse are parallel, but suggests that the word "נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" should be understood in light of its Akkadain cognate, nahsati/u, meaning a women's menstrual flow.
• סֻלָּם – Though often translated as "ladder,"⁴² the word סֻלָּם is actually a hapax legomenon (appearing only in Bereshit 28:12) whose exact meaning is unknown.  The word might stem from the Hebrew root סלל which relates to a path or ramp, or alternatively to the Akkadian "simmiltu" which means a stairway. The latter possibility has led many scholars to suggest that what Yaakov saw in his dream was actually a ziqqurat, a stepped Mesopotamian temple which was believed to connect heaven and earth.^{43 44}
• פֹּת – Yirmeyahu 3:17 reads, "וְשִׂפַּח אֲדֹנָי קׇדְקֹד בְּנוֹת צִיּוֹן וַי״י פׇּתְהֵן יְעָרֶה".  The meaning of the word "פׇּתְהֵן" is unclear. Ibn EzraYeshayahu 3:17About R. Avraham ibn Ezra⁴⁵ and RadakYeshayahu 3:17About R. David Kimchi suggests that it refers to a woman's private parts, which Hashem is to unveil.⁴⁶ Ibn EzraYeshayahu 3:17About R. Avraham ibn Ezra and ShadalYeshayahu 3:17About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto also bring the alternative possibility that the word פֹּת is somewhat parallel to "קׇדְקֹד", with Ibn Ezra relating it the word "פאה" (head of hair) and Shadal to the Aramaic "אפותא," meaning forehead. A closer cognate might be the Akkadian "putu", also meaning forehead.⁴⁷

Akkadian Terminology

• וַיַּחֲזֵק בִּכְנַף מְעִילוֹ – S. M. Paul⁴⁸ explains the significance of grasping a garment's hem (or corner) by looking to the equivalent Akkadian phrases, "sissikta sabatu" and "qannam sabatu".  He notes that the various contexts in which the phrases appear involve a show of submission, and more specifically, a show of allegiance or loyalty to the god / king whose garment was grasped.  It is possible, then, that in Tanakh, too, the action holds the same connotation. This might shed light on various episodes involving grasping the corners of cloaks:

• • Shemuel I 15:27 – Many question whether it is Shaul or Shemuel who holds and tears the cloak in this verse. In light of the context of supplication and submission in Akkadian texts, R. Brauner⁴⁹ concludes that in this verse it must be Shaul holding onto Shemuel's cloak, in a show of subservience after having admitted to his wrongdoing.⁵⁰ 
  • Shemuel I 24:4-5 – If grasping a corner is a sign of allegiance, it is possible that David's cutting off the hem of Shaul's garment in this verse was symbolic of his cutting of ties and loyalty to the king.
  • Zekharyah 8:23 – The chapter describes how in the future many foreigners will turn to God and "יַחֲזִיקוּ עֲשָׂרָה אֲנָשִׁים מִכֹּל לְשֹׁנוֹת הַגּוֹיִם וְהֶחֱזִיקוּ בִּכְנַף אִישׁ יְהוּדִי לֵאמֹר נֵלְכָה עִמָּכֶם". In light of the Akkadian, the verse appears to be stating that the foreigners will show their allegiance to the nation of Israel.⁵¹

Egyptian

It has been suggested that several words in Tanakh, especially rare words which appear primarily within narratives that relate to Egypt, might be loanwords from Egyptian. As such, looking to the Egyptian equivalents might shed light on their meaning. Additionally, even in cases where a word might not be Egyptian in origin, recognizing the Egyptian backdrop and usage of certain phrases, might further elucidate their meaning.

Egyptian Loanwords

• אַבְרֵךְ – This word appears but once in Tanakh, in Bereshit 41:43, which describes how, after Yosef's appointment as second in command, he rode in a chariot and the people called before him: "אַבְרֵךְ". Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 41:43About R. Avraham ibn Ezra connects the word "אַבְרֵךְ" to the root "ברך", suggesting that all cried before Yosef, "I will kneel and bow".  ShadalBereshit 41:43About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto, quoting Gesenius, reaches a similar conclusion, but by suggesting that the proclamation is a loanword from Egyptian meaning to bow one's head.⁵² More modern scholars have proposed other Egyptian connections suggesting that the word might relate to ı͗ b-r.k , meaning "attention!" or i.brk, meaning "do homage".⁵³
• אַחְלָמָה – The identity of this stone from the Choshen (mentioned in Shemot 28:19 and Shemot 39:12) is debated. Some relate it to the Egyptian ḫnm(t),⁵⁴ understood to be a stone with a reddish-orange hue, such as red jasper.  For other possible identifications and  further discussion, see Stones of the Choshen.
• בֹּחַן‎⁵⁵ – Yeshayahu 28:16 speaks of an "אֶבֶן בֹּחַן" which will be placed as a foundation in Tzion.  The word "בֹּחַן" is a hapax legomenon whose meaning is debated.  RashiYeshayahu 28:16About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and RadakYeshayahu 28:16About R. David Kimchi relate it to the word "בַחַן" in Yeshayahu 32:14 (אַרְמוֹן נֻטָּשׁ הֲמוֹן עִיר עֻזָּב עֹפֶל וָבַחַן), a fortress or watchtower, suggesting that an "אֶבֶן בֹּחַן" is a particularly strong or massive rock. Ibn KaspiYeshayahu 28:16About R. Yosef ibn Kaspi, in contrast, assumes "בֹּחַן" relates to the verb "בחן", and refers to a tried and tested stone.⁵⁶ B. Noonan⁵⁷ raises a third possibility, that "בֹּחַן' is borrowed from the Egyptian bḫn, meaning greywacke, a type of sandstone used heavily in construction.
• לֶשֶׁם – The identity of this stone from the Choshen is disputed. T. Lambdin⁵⁸ suggest that the Hebrew לשם might be related to the Egyptian nšm(t), identified by some as the bluish-green feldspar (amazonite). See Stones of the Choshen for more.
• נֹפֶךְ –This stone is mentioned with regards to the Choshen (Shemot 28:18 and Shemot 39:11), the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), and also in Yechezkel 27:16, in the context of the merchandise of Aram. It is not clear, however, to which stone is referred. T. Lambdin⁵⁹ suggests that "נֹפֶךְ" might relate to the Egyptian mfkt, referring to a greenish-blue stone such as turquoise or perhaps malachite.⁶⁰ For discussion, see Stones of the Choshen.
• צׇפְנַת פַּעְנֵחַ – In Bereshit 41:45, Yosef is given a new name by Paroh, "צׇפְנַת פַּעְנֵחַ". Commentators debate whether this is a Hebrew translation of the original Egyptian name or if Tanakh is preserving the Egyptian itself. Assuming the former, many⁶¹ follow OnkelosBereshit 41:45About Targum Onkelos in understanding the name to mean "revealer of mysteries," assuming that "צׇפְנַת" relates to the root "צפן," to hide.⁶² Others look to the Egyptian, with Steindorf⁶³ suggesting that it relates to D̲(d)-pnt(r)-ĕf-ʿnḫ and means  "the god speaks and he lives".  A. S. Yahuda⁶⁴ disagrees, positing that it relates to ḏf n tꜢ pw 'nḫ, which would roughly translate as "food, sustenance of this land, is this living one". If so, the name directly relates to Yosef's position as the offcer in charge of providing food for the country.⁶⁵
• שְׂכִיּוֹת – This word appears but once in Tanakh, in Yeshayahu 2:16, "וְעַל כׇּל אֳנִיּוֹת תַּרְשִׁישׁ וְעַל כׇּל שְׂכִיּוֹת הַחֶמְדָּה". Many commentators connect it to the noun "מַשְׂכִּית", a word whose meaning is also disputed and is understood by some⁶⁶ to refer to images (from the root ש/סכה, to see), and by others⁶⁷ to a stone floor covering (from the root ש/סכך).  When applied to Yeshayahu, the verse might speak of beautiful images (see RadakYeshayahu 2:16About R. David Kimchi), or perhaps to paved palaces (see RashiBereshit 41:40Yeshayahu 2:16Yechezkel 16:36Zekharyah 3:7-8Mishlei 8:21Shir HaShirim 8:2About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and ShadalYeshayahu 2:16About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto). T. Lambdin,⁶⁸ however, suggests that שְׂכִיּוֹת is actually a loanword from the Egyptian "skty" which means boat.  If so, the two halves of the verse are parallel.
  
• תַּחַשׁ‎⁶⁹ – This word appears almost exclusively in the context of the coverings of the Mishkan and its vessels, where it is usually accompanies the word "עוֹר", suggesting that it is related to animal skins.‎⁷⁰  It appears once more, in Yechezkel 16:10, "וָאֶנְעֲלֵךְ תָּחַשׁ". 
• Color –The SeptuagintShemot 26:14About the Septuagint and Aramaic TargumimShemot 26:14About Targum Onkelos suggest that it is a color,⁷¹ supported by the context of many of the verses in which it appears where it is associated with other colored coverings. S. Ahituv and H. Tadmor⁷² agree, suggesting that the word is cognate with the Akkadian dušû or duḫšû, a color term.
• Hide – In contrast, many medieval commentators suggest that it refers to the hide of an animal (and/or the animal itself).⁷³ B. Noonan⁷⁴ supports this meaning, suggesting that תחש might be related to the Egyptian ṯḥs, a type of Egyptian leather.

Egyptian Terminology

• נשק – In Bereshit 41:40, Paroh tells Yosef that he will be in charge of his house, and "וְעַל פִּיךָ יִשַּׁק כׇּל עַמִּי". As the common translation of "kiss" does not seem applicable, commentators look for alternative translations.  Rashi Bereshit 41:43About R. Shelomo Yitzchakisuggests that the word means to provide, referencing Bereshit 15:2 "בֶן מֶשֶׁק בֵּיתִי", while RashbamBereshit 41:40About R. Shemuel b. Meir suggests that it relates to "נשק" (ammunition), and that Paroh was speaking of a military role to be played by Yosef.  A. S. Yahuda⁷⁵ suggests that, in light of Egyptian terminology, one may actually maintain the prevalent understanding of "יִשַּׁק" as kiss, pointing to several Egyptian texts in which the expression to "kiss the food" is used metaphorically in ceremonial speech to refer to feeding.

¹ See also Onkelos and the first opinion brought by Ibn Ezra

² He writes, "רוצה לומר: וטהר אדמתו, אדמת עמו". See also Shadal who cites Rosenmüller and Gesenius as explaining similarly, "אדמתו של עמו, אדמת עמו". If so, the verse might be compared to others which similarly have an extraneous vav, such as Tehillim 50:10, "כִּי לִי כׇל חַיְתוֹ יָעַר" (meaning חית יער) or Bemidbar 24:3, "נְאֻם בִּלְעָם בְּנוֹ בְעֹר" (meaning בן בעור).

³ According to him, the subject of "אַדְמָתוֹ" is not Hashem but the nation itself.

⁴ See Tur Sinai, "וכפר אדמתו עמו (דברים לב, מג)", Tarbiz 24:2 (1955): 232.

⁵ See Y. Avishur, "מלים וצירופים מהמקרא לאור מקביליהם באכדית", Shenaton: An Annual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies  2 (1977): 11-17.

⁶ In this he follows H. L. Ginsburg, "סיום שירת האזינו (דברים לב, לד—מג)", Tarbiz 24:1 (1955): 1-3, who connects "אדמתו" to the Ugaritic "אדמעת", meaning tears.

⁷ See V. Hurowitz, "הילכו שניים יחדיו? עיון במלווה אכדי חדש לעברית ולארמית של המקרא", Lĕšonénu: A Journal for the Study of the Hebrew Language and Cognate Subjects 35 (2010): 359-383.

⁸ See H. Tawil, An Akkadian Lexical Companion for Biblical Hebrew: Etymological-Semantic and Idiomatic Equivalents with Supplement on Biblical Aramaic (New Jersey, 2009).

⁹ In many of these, the word "אֱלִיל" appears to function as an adjective rather than a noun.

¹⁰ See H. Tadmor, "ברית ושבועת אמונים במזרח הקדום: גישתו של היסטוריון," Shenaton: An Annual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies 5-6 (1982-1983): 160-161, and the literature cited there.

¹¹ This root refers to eating, as in Shemuel II 13:5, Shemuel II 12:17 and Shemuel II 13:5.

¹² See also Ibn EzraDevarim 32:43Yeshayahu 3:17Bereshit First Commentary 6:18Shir HaShirim First Commentary Midrash 8:2About R. Avraham ibn Ezra.

¹³ The first form is a noun (strength) and the second an adjective (very strong). In verbal form, the root might mean to ratify or make legally binding. [As such, it is similar in usage to the word "תוקף"].

¹⁴ As such, many commentators suggest that the phrase "דָּנַנִּי אֱלֹהִים" refers to the original decree of barrenness. Rachel is justifying Hashem's making her barren, but simultaneously thanking Him for listening to her prayers and giving her a child. It is still somewhat difficult, though, that she would call her son "דן" focusing on the judgment rather than the cure.

¹⁵ The doubling of the nun might further support that in this verse the root is related to the Akkadian.

¹⁶ See, for example, RashbamDevarim 32:36About R. Shemuel b. Meir, Ibn Ezra,Devarim 32:36About R. Avraham ibn Ezra and R"Y Bekhor ShorDevarim 32:36About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor.

¹⁷ See also Tehillim 54:3 "אֱלֹהִים בְּשִׁמְךָ הוֹשִׁיעֵנִי וּבִגְבוּרָתְךָ תְדִינֵנִי" which might be explained similarly.

¹⁸ R. Eliezer of BeaugencyZekharyah 3:7About R. Eliezer of Beaugency, instead, assumes that "בֵּיתִי" refers to the nation as a whole, and connects this judgement to the general teaching functions of priests

¹⁹ This reading was suggested by Gad Dishi.

²⁰ See RashiBereshit 41:40Bereshit 41:43Shemot 25:5Vayikra 26:1Devarim 32:43Yeshayahu 2:16Zekharyah 3:7-8About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and Ibn EzraZekharyah First Commentary 3:8About R. Avraham ibn Ezra.

²¹ See V. A. Hurowitz, “Two Terms for Wealth in Proverbs VIII in Light of Akkadian.” Vetus Testamentum 50:2 (2000): 252–257.

²² See Rashi similarly, "יש אתי נחלה רבה".

²³ According to this reading, it is not clear what the verse means to express by adding "בְּלֹא מִשְׁפָּט".

²⁴ RadakShemuel I 7:2Melakhim II 9:30Yeshayahu 2:16Amos 5:26About R. David Kimchi suggests that the word " כִּיּוּן" in Amos 5:26  ("וְאֵת כִּיּוּן צַלְמֵיכֶם") might be related as well.

²⁵ RadakAmos 5:26About R. David Kimchi raises the possibility that the word stems from the root כון, meaning to prepare.

²⁶ See M. Held, "עיונים בלקסיקוגרפיה המקראית לאור האכדית", Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies 16 (1982): 76-85.

²⁷ The phrase "מְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם" appears in both verses in Yirmeyahu, and in each is spelled without the expected aleph (מלאכת השמים).  This allows for the possibility that it should be related to the root "מלך" and might be translated as "queen of the heavens".  Cf. RashiBereshit 41:40Bereshit 41:43Shemot 25:5Yirmeyahu 7:18About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki who writes "כוכב הגדול היו קורין מלכת השמים ל׳ מלוכה". According to him, the verse likely refers to Venus, also associated with Ishtar.

²⁸ See RashiShir HaShirim 8:2About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, Ibn EzraShir HaShirim First Commentary Midrash 8:2About R. Avraham ibn Ezra, and MalbimShir HaShirim 8:2About R. Meir Leibush Weiser.

²⁹ See S. M. Paul, "Gleanings from the Biblical and Talmudic Lexica in Light of Akkadian", Minhah le-aNahum ed. M. Brettler and M. Fishbane (Sheffield, 1993): 242-256.

³⁰ See RashiYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, R. Yosef KaraYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Yosef Kara, RadakYirmeyahu 8:18About R. David Kimchi, R. Yosef ibn KaspiYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Yosef ibn Kaspi.

³¹ ShadalYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto brings another possibility, "cheerfulness".

³² See his article cited above.

³³ Commentators debate the role of the "mem" in the word "מֵרֵעֵהוּ" in this verse, with some suggesting it is part of the root (מרע) and others suggesting that it is secondary, and that the word means "מן הרעים שלו".

³⁴ See V. Hurowitz, "הילכו שניים יחדיו? עיון במלווה אכדי חדש לעברית ולארמית של המקרא", Lĕšonénu: A Journal for the Study of the Hebrew Language and Cognate Subjects 35 (2010): 359-383.

³⁵ It is also possible that even without the Akkadian cognate one can understand the verse to refer to an advisor or officer rather than a mere colleague.  See Divrei HaYamim I 27:33, "וַאֲחִיתֹפֶל יוֹעֵץ לַמֶּלֶךְ וְחוּשַׁי הָאַרְכִּי רֵעַ הַמֶּלֶךְ" where "רֵעַ" might be parallel to "יוֹעֵץ". If so, the word "מֵרֵעֵהוּ" in Bereshit 26:26 might then be translated as "מן הרעים שלו", that Avimelekh took "Achuzat, from among his advisors..."

³⁶ See also the noun forms, נהי and הי, which consistently mean lamentation.

³⁷ He also raises the possibility that נהה takes a totally different meaning in this verse and refers to gathering, similar to the word "נקוו‎". See Yirmeyahu 3:17, "וְנִקְווּ אֵלֶיהָ כׇל הַגּוֹיִם לְשֵׁם י"י" and Targum YonatanYirmeyahu 3:17About Targum Yonatan (Neviim) there who explains, "וְיִתְנְהוֹן לְמִפְלַח בָּהּ כָּל עַמְמַיָא לִשְׁמָא דַייָ".

³⁸ See M. Weinfeld, "Jeremiah and the Spiritual Metamorphosis of Israel", ZAW 88:1 (1976): 17-56.  See also the discussion in I. Gluska, "מקראות סתומים לאור האכדית", Beit MIkra 34:4 (1989): 357-359.

³⁹ See Mishna Keilim 8:3Keilim 8:3Keilim 9:1Keilim 9:3About the Mishna, 9:1Keilim 9:1About the Mishna, and 9:3Keilim 9:3About the Mishna.

⁴⁰ In these cases, however, the connection to "נחושת" is still very evident, as the pot and oven are made of the metal.

⁴¹ I. Gluska, "מקראות סתומים לאור האכדית", Beit MIkra 34:4 (1989): 357-359.

⁴² This might be due to its contemporary usage.

⁴³ See discussion in Y. Peleg, "מהו ה'סלם' שראה יעקב בחלומו?‏‎" and the literature brought there. Prof. Elitzur, "מגדל בבל וסולם יעקב", reprinted in ישראל והמקרא (Jerusalem, 2000): 44-50, explains that the allusion to such temples is actually meant to mock them. In contrast to Mesopotamian beliefs, Torah teaches that to connect to Hashem, one need not build a fancy temple, as even in a lowly open field, Yaakov is able to see "ה' נִצָּב עָלָיו".‎ See also the discussion in Yaakov's Dream.

⁴⁴ See also the discussion in Yaakov's Dream.

⁴⁵ See his second explanation.

⁴⁶ Ibn Ezra connects it to the word "הַפֹּתוֹת" in Melakhim I 7:50, but the word's meaning there is ambiguous as well.

⁴⁷ See H. Tawil, An Akkadian Lexical Companion for Biblical Hebrew: Etymological-Semantic and Idiomatic Equivalents with Supplement on Biblical Aramaic (New Jersey, 2009).

⁴⁸ See S. M. Paul, "Gleanings from the Biblical and Talmudic Lexica in Light of Akkadian", Minhah le-aNahum ed. M. Brettler and M. Fishbane (Sheffield, 1993): 242-256.

⁴⁹ R.A. Brauner, "'To Grasp the Hem' and 1 Samuel 15.27", JANESCU 6 (1974): 35-38.

⁵⁰ According to him, the tearing is accidental. One, however, could suggest the opposite, that Shemuel intentionally tore Shaul's garment as a sign that he no longer viewed him as king and held no allegiance to him.  If so, though, one would have expected the active "וַיִּקְרַע" rather than the passive "וַיִּקָּרַע".

⁵¹ See S. Paul cited above who makes this point.

⁵² RashiBereshit 41:43About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and RashbamBereshit 41:43About R. Shemuel b. Meir offer yet another suggestion, turning not to Egyptian but to Aramaic. They propose that the word is composed of two parts אב רך, understanding the latter to be related to the Aramaic רכא, meaning king. Rashbam notes that later Yosef says that Hashem placed him "לְאָב לְפַרְעֹה", matching his title in this verse - אב רך = אב למלך.

⁵³ See the discussion in  V. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis, Chapters 18-50 (Michigan, 1995): 506-507, and the literature cited there.

⁵⁴ See J. Harrell, J. Hoffmeier and K. Williams, "Hebrew Gemstones in the Old Testament: A Lexical, Geological, and Archaeological Analysis," Bulletin for Biblical Research 27:1 (2017): 25. They note that linguistic shift between the Egyptian nun and Hebrew lamed is attested to elsewhere, allowing that the Hebrew word was borrowed from the Egyptian.

⁵⁵ For discussion of the various possible meanings of this word, see B. Noonan, "The Meaning of בֹּחן in Isaiah 28,16", ZAW 125:2 (1013), 314-319.

⁵⁶ Cf. the opinions brought by B. Noonan (cited above) that it might refer to a "testing stone", a stone whose function was to test the measurements of other stones. See also R"E of BeaugencyYeshayahu 28:16About R. Eliezer of Beaugency who adopts this meaning, but in a more metaphoric sense, writing that the stone was meant, "לבחנכם אם תהיו ראוים לינצל בה ואם לאו".

⁵⁷ See his article cited above.

⁵⁸ See T. Lambdin, "Egyptian Loan Words in the Old Testament", Journal of the American Oriental Society 73:3 (1953): 152.  See also the discussion by J. Harrell, J. Hoffmeier and K. Williams (ibid, p. 22-23).

⁵⁹ See T. Lambdin (ibid, p. 152).

⁶⁰ If so, it might be related to the noun "פּוּךְ" which both Melakhim II 9:30 and Yirmeyahu 4:30 imply was a source of eye make-up, assumed to be bluish. [See Rashi, R"Y Kara and Radak.]

⁶¹ See, for example, Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra and R"Y Bekhor Shor.

⁶² Shadal, however, notes that the word "פַּעְנֵחַ" has no parallel elsewhere in Biblical Hebrew. As such, the understanding of "פַּעְנֵחַ" as "reveal" is based solely on context.

⁶³ See discussion in A. S. Yahuda, (ibid, p.32-33).

⁶⁴ See A. S. Yahuda, (ibid, p.33-34).

⁶⁵ The Septuagint preserves a slightly different version of the name, Ψονθομφανήχ (Psonthom-phanech), which has been understood to be related to Coptic, meaning "savior of the world".  [See the discussion in Gesenius.]  This is how Jerome renders the name in the Vulgate as well.  This interpretation of the name fits the context, as Yosef saved the world from famine. [The Christian preference for this reading might relate to their viewing of Yosef as a prefiguration of Jesus.]

⁶⁶ See RashbamVayikra 26:1About R. Shemuel b. Meir, Ibn EzraVayikra 26:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra and R"Y Bekhor Shor.Vayikra 26:1About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor

⁶⁷ See RashiVayikra 26:1Yeshayahu 28:16About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki.

⁶⁸ See T. Lambdin (ibid, p. 154-155) and the literature cited there.

⁶⁹ For a comprehensive analysis of the various meanings that have been proposed for this term, see B. Noonan, "Hide or Hue? Defining Hebrew תחש", Biblica 93:4 (2012): 580–589.

⁷⁰ See, for instance, the command to create coverings for the Mishkan in Shemot 26:14, " וְעָשִׂיתָ מִכְסֶה לָאֹהֶל עֹרֹת אֵילִם מְאׇדָּמִים וּמִכְסֵה עֹרֹת תְּחָשִׁים מִלְמָעְלָה"

⁷¹ While the Septuagint suggests that it is a blue hue, the Aramaic translations point to vermillon.

⁷² See Encyclopedia Mikrait Vol. 8, "תחש"(Jerusalem, 1950-1988): 520-521.

⁷³ They disagree regarding the specific animal to which it might refer. RashiShemot 25:5Zekharyah 3:7-8Mishlei 8:21Shir HaShirim 8:2About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, following Bavli Shabbat 28bShabbat 28bAbout the Bavli, suggests that it was a unicorn, created especially for this purpose. Ibn EzraShemot First Commentary 25:5About R. Avraham ibn Ezra points to an ox and RalbagShemot Beur HaMilot 25:5About R. Levi b. Gershom to a goat, both noting that the skin would need to be tough enough for making shoes.  Finally, Shadal brings the opinion of Gesenius who suggests that it was some sort of sea creature. Cf. Brown, Driver and Briggs,  who suggest that it might be cognate with the Arabic tuḫas meaning dunong or dolphin. [It is not clear, however, from where the Israelites would have had access to dolphin skins, unless they had caught them in the Red Sea.]

⁷⁴ See the article cited above.

⁷⁵ See A. S. Yahuda, The Language of the Pentateuch in its Relation to the Egyptian, (London, 1933): 7.