Difference between revisions of "Dictionary:Cognates and Loanwords/0"
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− | <li><b>שְׂכִיּוֹת </b>– This word appears but once in Tanakh, in Yeshayahu 2:16. Many commentators connect it to the word "מַשְׂכִּית", meaning | + | <li><b>שְׂכִיּוֹת </b>– This word appears but once in Tanakh, in Yeshayahu 2:16, "וְעַל כׇּל אֳנִיּוֹת תַּרְשִׁישׁ וְעַל כׇּל שְׂכִיּוֹת הַחֶמְדָּה". Many commentators connect it to the word "מַשְׂכִּית", a word whose meaning is also disputed but understood by some to refer to illustrations and other<b> <br/></b></li> |
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Version as of 23:30, 22 November 2020
Lexical: Cognates and Loanwords
Akkadian Cognates
- אַדְמָתוֹ – The phrase "וְכִפֶּר אַדְמָתוֹ עַמּוֹ" in Devarim 32:43 is difficult from a syntactic perspective. Who is the subject of the verb "כִפֶּר" – Hashem, the nation, or the land? Who or what is the object? How do the words "אַדְמָתוֹ" and "עַמּוֹ" relate to each other?
- While Rashi1 suggests that the verse should be read as if written, "וְכִפֶּר אַדְמָתוֹ ועַמּוֹ", that Hashem will make expiation for both the land and people, Ralbag suggests that it be understood as if written "וְכִפֶּר אדמת עַמּוֹ",2 that Hashem will purify the land of His nation. Ibn Ezra offers a third possibility, "וכפר עמו [על] אדמתו",3 that the nation itself will expiate the land.
- Tur Sinai4 has suggested that the word "אַדְמָתוֹ" is related to the Akkadian, "adamaֿtu", used in poetic passages to mean "red blood". Hashem will expiate not the land of His nation (which is not otherwise mentioned in the verse), but their blood that has been spilled. This clause of the verse is thus intrinsically tied to the earlier clause, "דַם עֲבָדָיו יִקּוֹם".
- In contrast to most of the above explanations, Y. Avishur5 suggests a reading that does not entail adding or deleting letters/words from the verse, proposing that the phrase means "וכפר דמעות עמו,"6 similar to the Akkadian, "dimtassa ikkapar". After avenging the nation's blood, Hashem will wipe away (כפר = מחה), the nation's tears.
- אֱלִיל – The noun "אֱלִיל" is generally translated as idol, but the etymology of the word is unclear. Rashi and R"Y Kara suggest that it might come from the word "אַל" meaning nought. In contrast, V. Hurowitz7 and H. Tawil8 propose that it might be related to Akkadian, with Hurowitz connecting it to Enlil, head god of the Sumerian pantheon, and Tawil relating it to the Akkadian "ulalu", meaning worthless. The latter possibility might explain various verses in which the normal translation of idol is less fitting:9
- Yirmeyahu 14:14: "שֶׁקֶר הַנְּבִאִים נִבְּאִים בִּשְׁמִי.. וְלֹא דִבַּרְתִּי אֲלֵיהֶם חֲזוֹן שֶׁקֶר וְקֶסֶם [וֶאֱלִיל] (ואלול)" - Yirmeyahu claims that the visions of false prophets are lies and things of nought.
- Zekharyah 11:17: " הוֹי רֹעִי הָאֱלִיל עֹזְבִי הַצֹּאן" – Zecharyah speaks of worthless shepherds who abandon their sheep.
- Iyyov 13:4: "אַתֶּם טֹפְלֵי שָׁקֶר רֹפְאֵי אֱלִל כֻּלְּכֶם" – Iyyov tells his friends that they are like physicians of no value, for their attempts to comfort are futile.
- Tehillim 96:5, " כִּי כׇּל אֱלֹהֵי הָעַמִּים אֱלִילִים" Though this verse is often understood to mean, "all the nation's gods are idols," a smoother translation might understand "אֱלִיל" here, too, as an adjective: "all the nations' gods are worthless".
- בְּרִית – Though all agree that "בְּרִית" refers to a covenant, the etymology of the word is debated. Some10 have suggested that it comes from the root ברה11 and relates to the shared meal that often accompanied the treaty, while others posit that it might relate to the verb ברא used in Yehoshua 17:15 and Yechezkel 23:47, meaning "to cut".12 H. Tadmor also brings the opinion that the word relates to the Akkadian "biritu" which means bond or tie, or, alternatively to the Akkadian "birit" which means "between" (and might refer to the covenantal ceremony of passing between pieces of a slaughtered animal). To see how each possibility might relate to various aspects of treaty-making, see Treaties in Tanakh and the Ancient Near East.
- דן – In Akkadian "dunnu" / "dunnunu" relates to strength.13 This meaning might illuminate several verses in Tanakh in which the more common definition of "to judge" or "execute judgement" is less fitting:
- Bereshit 30:6: "וַתֹּאמֶר רָחֵל דָּנַנִּי אֱלֹהִים וְגַם שָׁמַע בְּקֹלִי". It is difficult to understand why Rachel would be saying that Hashem "judged" her at the moment of granting her a child.14 If, however, "דָּנַנִּי" is related to the Akkadian "dunnunu",15 Rachel might simply be thanking Hashem for empowering and strengthening her in granting her wish.
- Devarim 32:36: "כִּי יָדִין י״י עַמּוֹ וְעַל עֲבָדָיו יִתְנֶחָם" – Hashem's judging of the nation in the first clause of the verse appears at odds with the continuation which speaks of Hashem's compassion on the people. As such, many commentators16 understand the verse to mean that Hashem will avenge His nation (i.e. judge their enemies, not them). Alternatively, in light of the Akkadian, it might mean that Hashem will strengthen the nation. This works well with the end of the verse which explains the necessity of Hashem's intervention: "כִּי יִרְאֶה כִּי אָזְלַת יָד וְאֶפֶס עָצוּר וְעָזוּב". Since the nation has lost its power, Hashem will provide it.17
- Zekharyah 3:7: "וְגַם אַתָּה תָּדִין אֶת בֵּיתִי" – Rashi and Radak suggest that in these words, Yehoshua is being tasked with overseeing/judging the Beit Hamikdash or priests. R. Eliezer of Beaugency, instead, assumes that "בֵּיתִי" refers to the nation as a whole, and connects this judgement to the general teaching functions of priests. If one applies the Akkadian meaning of strength, however, it is possible that Hashem is telling Yehoshua to back and strengthen the house of Zerubavel,18 the political leader of the time (alluded to in the next verse, "כִּי הִנְנִי מֵבִיא אֶת עַבְדִּי צֶמַח").19
- וַיַּחֲזֵק בִּכְנַף מְעִילוֹ – S. Paul20 explains the significance of grasping a garment's hem (or corner) by looking to the equivalent Akkadian phrases, "sissikta sabatu" and "qannam sabatu". He notes that the various contexts in which the phrases appear involve a show of submission, and more specifically, a show of allegiance or loyalty to the god / king whose garment was grasped. It is possible, then, that in Tanakh, too, the action holds the same connotation. This might shed light on various episodes involving grasping the corners of cloaks:
- Shemuel I 15:27 – In light of the context of supplication and submission in Akkadian texts, R. Brauner21 concludes that in this verse it must be Shaul holding onto Shemuel's cloak, in a show of subservience after having admitted to his wrongdoing.22
- Shemuel I 24:4-5 – If grasping a corner is a sign of allegiance, it is possible that David's cutting off the hem of Shaul's garment was symbolic of cutting his ties and loyalty to the king.
- Zekharyah 8:23 – The chapter describes how in the future many foreigners will turn to God and "יַחֲזִיקוּ עֲשָׂרָה אֲנָשִׁים מִכֹּל לְשֹׁנוֹת הַגּוֹיִם וְהֶחֱזִיקוּ בִּכְנַף אִישׁ יְהוּדִי לֵאמֹר נֵלְכָה עִמָּכֶם". In light of the Akkadian, the verse appears to be stating that the foreigners will show their allegiance to the nation of Israel.23
- יֵשׁ – The word "יש" is commonly understood as a particle relating to ownership or being. V. Hurowitz24 notes that the Akkadian equivalent is "basu", often translated as "there is" but also meaning "to exist". This verb has a noun form, "busu", which means possessions or valuables. As such, he suggests that it is possible that the Hebrew "יש" might similarly function as both a noun and verb. This understanding might elucidate the meaning of several verses:
- Mishlei 8:21: "לְהַנְחִיל אֹהֲבַי יֵשׁ וְאֹצְרֹתֵיהֶם אֲמַלֵּא" – Commentators who read "יֵשׁ" as a verb are forced to posit that the verse is assuming an unspoken noun. Thus, for example, Radak explains, "יש לי מתנה טובה להנחיל אותה לאוהבי".25 Hurowitz, instead, explains that the the word "יֵשׁ" is parallel to "אוצרות", and functions here as a noun, meaning valuables.
- Mishlei 13:23: רׇב אֹכֶל נִיר רָאשִׁים וְיֵשׁ נִסְפֶּה בְּלֹא מִשְׁפָּט – Hurowitz suggests that perhaps here, too, "יֵשׁ" should be defined as wealth. If so, the verse might be highlighting the changing fortunes of people. The work of even the poor might produce much food, while a person's wealth might dissipate.26
- כַּוָּנִים – This word appears in both Yirmeyahu 7:18 and 44:1927 and, due to the context of idolatry in both verses, is understood by Radak and Shadal to refer to some type of food/cake offering.28 This meaning is supported by the Akkadian cognate, kamaֿnu, which refers to sweet cakes which were used in the worship of Ishtar.29 This fits well with the full phrase "לַעֲשׂוֹת כַּוָּנִים לִמְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם" as Ishtar is also known "queen of the heavens" (מְלֶכֶת = מַלְכַּת).30 [Ishtar is further associated with the star Venus so even if one takes a more simple reading of "מְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם", it might refer to her specifically.]
- למד – This root generally refers to learning or teaching. The verb appears in Shir HaShirim 8:2, "אֶנְהָגְךָ אֲבִיאֲךָ אֶל בֵּית אִמִּי תְּלַמְּדֵנִי" where it is commonly understood within the metaphoric understanding of the book to refer to instruction in Torah and mitzvot.31 It is less clear, though, what it would mean according to the simple sense of the verse. S.M. Paul32 notes that in Akkadian, lamadu can refer to sexual knowledge. [He compares it to the root "ידע" (and the Akkadian equivalent idu) which can also connote both intellectual and sexual knowledge, noting the relationship between learning/teaching (למד) and knowing (ידע).] Accordingly, the beloved would be speaking of her hopes to engage in relations with her lover.
- מַבְלִיגִיתִי – This word is a hapax legomenon, appearing only in Yirmeyahu 8:18: "מַבְלִיגִיתִי עֲלֵי יָגוֹן עָלַי לִבִּי דַוָּי". Many commentators33 connect it to the verb "בלג", and from context, understand it to be a noun meaning strength or restraint.34 In contrast, Y. Avishur suggests that it is the feminine form of "מבליג" which is parallel to the Akkadian balaggu, referring to either a musical instrument or song. The verse would mean "and my instrument turned for me into grief", similar to Iyyov 30:31, "וַיְהִי לְאֵבֶל כִּנֹּרִי".
- מֵרֵעֵהוּ – The root "מרע" appears in several places in Tanakh, in Bereshit 26:26,35 Shofetim 14-15, Shemuel II 3:8 and Mishlei 19:7. In each case, commentators define it as a friend or companion. The context of Bereshit 26, however, might make one question whether this is the most fitting translation there as well. The verses speak of the covenant between Avimelekh and Yitzchak, stating "וַאֲבִימֶלֶךְ הָלַךְ אֵלָיו מִגְּרָר וַאֲחֻזַּת מֵרֵעֵהוּ וּפִיכֹל שַׂר צְבָאוֹ". Why would Avimelekh bring both his military commander and a mere "friend" to negotiate? V. Hurowitz suggests that perhaps "מֵרֵעֵהוּ" in this verse is equivalent to the Akkadian "merhu", meaning שר הרועים. Avimelekh brought two important officers with him, not one of his friends.36
- נהה – In both Yechezkel 32:8 and Mikhah 2:4, this root means wail or lament.37 However, this definition is more difficult to apply to Shemuel I 7:2, "וַיִּנָּהוּ כׇּל בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל אַחֲרֵי י״י". What would it mean that the nation "lamented after Hashem"? Radak suggests that the verse might mean that the nation cried as they repented of their ways. 38 M. Weinfeld39 offers a different explanation in light of Akkadian, suggesting that "נהה" is related to the Akkadian ne'u, meaning "to turn to": The verse states simply that the nation turned back to Hashem.
- נְחֹשֶׁת – Throughout Tanakh, "נְחֹשֶׁת" means copper, yet this meaning is difficult in Yechezkel 16:36: "יַעַן הִשָּׁפֵךְ נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ וַתִּגָּלֶה עֶרְוָתֵךְ". From context, most commentators understand the phrase "הִשָּׁפֵךְ נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" to be parallel to "וַתִּגָּלֶה עֶרְוָתֵךְ." Thus, Rashi and Radak suggest that "נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" means the women's edge or bottom, pointing as evidence to the verse "וְחָרָה נְחֻשְׁתָּהּ" (Yechezkel 24:11) and the Mishnaic phrase40 "נחשתו של תנור" which speak of the bottom of a vessel.41 I. Gluska42 agrees that the two halves of the verse are parallel, but suggests that the word "נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" should be understood in light of its Akkadain cognate, nahsati/u, meaning a women's menstrual flow.
- סֻלָּם – Though often translated as "ladder,"43 the word סֻלָּם is actually a hapax legomenon (appearing only in Bereshit 28:12) whose exact meaning is unknown. The word might stem from the Hebrew root סלל which relates to a path or ramp, or alternatively to the Akkadian "simmiltu" which means a stairway. The latter possibility has led many scholars to suggest that what Yaakov saw in his dream was actually a ziqqurat, a stepped Mesopotamian temple which was believed to connect heaven and earth.44 Prof. Elitzur45 explains that the allusion to such temples is actually meant to mock them. In contrast to Mesopotamian beliefs, Torah teaches that to connect to Hashem, one need not build a fancy temple, as even in a lowly open field, Yaakov is able to see "ה' נִצָּב עָלָיו".46
- פֹּת – Yirmeyahu 3:17 reads, "וְשִׂפַּח אֲדֹנָי קׇדְקֹד בְּנוֹת צִיּוֹן וַי״י פׇּתְהֵן יְעָרֶה". The meaning of the word "פׇּתְהֵן" is unclear. Ibn Ezra47 and Radak suggests that it refers to a woman's private parts, which Hashem is to unveil.48 Ibn Ezra and Shadal also bring the alternative possibility that the word פֹּת is somewhat parallel to "קׇדְקֹד", with Ibn Ezra relating it the word "פאה" (head of hair) and Shadal to the Aramaic "אפותא," meaning forehead. A closer cognate might be the Akkadian "putu", also meaning forehead.49
Egyptian Loanwords
- שְׂכִיּוֹת – This word appears but once in Tanakh, in Yeshayahu 2:16, "וְעַל כׇּל אֳנִיּוֹת תַּרְשִׁישׁ וְעַל כׇּל שְׂכִיּוֹת הַחֶמְדָּה". Many commentators connect it to the word "מַשְׂכִּית", a word whose meaning is also disputed but understood by some to refer to illustrations and other