Dictionary:Cognates and Loanwords/0

Cognates and Loanwords

Overview

Often, when faced with a difficult Biblical word, we can turn to cognate languages to aid in deciphering it. Below is a collection of terms whose meaning might be elucidated by looking to Akkadian, Egyptian or Persian.

Akkadian

•  אַדְמָתוֹ – The phrase "וְכִפֶּר אַדְמָתוֹ עַמּוֹ" in Devarim 32:43 is difficult from a syntactic perspective. Who is the subject of the verb "כִפֶּר" – Hashem, the nation, or the land?  Who or what is the object?  How do the words "אַדְמָתוֹ" and "עַמּוֹ" relate to each other?

• While RashiDevarim 32:43About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki¹ suggests that the verse should be read as if written, "וְכִפֶּר אַדְמָתוֹ ועַמּוֹ", that Hashem will make expiation for both the land and people, RalbagDevarim Beur HaMilot 32:43About R. Levi b. Gershom suggests that it be understood as if written "וְכִפֶּר אדמת עַמּוֹ",‎² that Hashem will purify the land of His nation.  Ibn EzraDevarim 32:43About R. Avraham ibn Ezra offers a third possibility, "וכפר עמו [על] אדמתו",‎³ that the nation itself will expiate the land.
• Tur Sinai⁴ has suggested that the word "אַדְמָתוֹ" is related to the Akkadian, "adamaֿtu", used in poetic passages to mean "red blood". Hashem will expiate not the land of His nation (which is not otherwise mentioned in the verse), but their blood that has been spilled.  This clause of the verse is thus intrinsically tied to the earlier clause, "דַם עֲבָדָיו יִקּוֹם". 
• In contrast to most of the above explanations, Y. Avishur⁵ suggests a reading that does not entail adding or deleting letters/words from the verse, proposing that the phrase means "וכפר דמעות עמו,"‎⁶ similar to the Akkadian, "dimtassa ikkapar".  After avenging the nation's blood, Hashem will wipe away (כפר = מחה), the nation's tears.
• אֱלִיל – The noun "אֱלִיל" is generally translated as idol, but the etymology of the word is unclear. RashiYirmeyahu 14:14About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and R"Y KaraYirmeyahu 14:14About R. Yosef Kara suggest that it might come from the word "אַל" meaning nought. In contrast, V. Hurowitz⁷ and H. Tawil⁸ propose that it might be related to Akkadian, with Hurowitz connecting it to Enlil, head god of the Sumerian pantheon, and Tawil relating it to the Akkadian "ulalu", meaning worthless. The latter possibility might explain various verses in which the normal translation of idol is less fitting:⁹
• Yirmeyahu 14:14: "שֶׁקֶר הַנְּבִאִים נִבְּאִים בִּשְׁמִי.. וְלֹא דִבַּרְתִּי אֲלֵיהֶם חֲזוֹן שֶׁקֶר וְקֶסֶם [וֶאֱלִיל] (ואלול)" - Yirmeyahu claims that the visions of false prophets are lies and things of nought.
• Zekharyah 11:17: " הוֹי רֹעִי הָאֱלִיל עֹזְבִי הַצֹּאן" – Zecharyah speaks of worthless shepherds who abandon their sheep.
• Iyyov 13:4: "אַתֶּם טֹפְלֵי שָׁקֶר רֹפְאֵי אֱלִל כֻּלְּכֶם" – Iyyov tells his friends that they are like physicians of no value, for their attempts to comfort are futile.
• Tehillim 96:5, " כִּי כׇּל אֱלֹהֵי הָעַמִּים אֱלִילִים" Though this verse is often understood to mean, "all the nations' gods are idols," a smoother translation might understand "אֱלִיל" here, too, as an adjective: "all the nations' gods are worthless".
• בִּירָה – Though today the word "בִּירָה" is used to refer to a capital city, in Biblical Hebrew the word generally means simply castle or fortress.  It might be related to either the Akkadian "birtu" (a castle), or to the Persian "bâru" (a rampart or bulwark). Ibn Ezra, thus, points out that in Megillat Esther, a distinction should be made between "שׁוּשַׁן" or "הָעִיר שׁוּשָׁן", which refers to the city, and "שׁוּשַׁן הַבִּירָה" which refers to the fortified castle complex.
• בִּיתַן – This word appears only in the Book of Esther, always in the context of the garden. It appears to relate to the word "בית", house, and might come to highlight that the garden spoken of was close to the palace (R"Y Kara). Alternatively, the word might be related to the Akkadian "bitanu", which can mean "interior" or "inner quarter of a house or temple" or might refer to a specific building in a palace complex (See CAD, "bitanu").¹⁰ Cf. Rashi who translates: "orchard" and the GR"A who suggests: "garden pavilion".
• בְּרִית – Though all agree that "בְּרִית" refers to a covenant, the etymology of the word is debated. Some¹¹ have suggested that it comes from the root ברה‎¹²‎ and relates to the shared meal that often accompanied the treaty, while others posit that it might relate to the verb ברא used in Yehoshua 17:15 and Yechezkel 23:47, meaning "to cut".¹³  H. Tadmor¹⁴ also brings the opinion that the word relates to the Akkadian "biritu" which means bond or tie, or, alternatively to the Akkadian "birit" which means "between" (and might refer to the covenantal ceremony of passing between pieces of a slaughtered animal). To see how each possibility might relate to various aspects of treaty-making, see Treaties in Tanakh and the Ancient Near East.
• דגל – In Akkadian, the verb "dagalu" means to look upon or gaze, with the noun "diglu" meaning sight or view.¹⁵  This meaning might bear light on Shir HaShirim 2:4, "הֱבִיאַנִי אֶל בֵּית הַיָּיִן וְדִגְלוֹ עָלַי אַהֲבָה", where the standard meaning of דגל as "banner" is somewhat awkward. Applying the Akkadian cognate, however, would render the sentence, "And his gaze upon me was love / loving."¹⁶
• דן – In Akkadian "dannutu" relates to strength and can refer to power, harshness, or a fortress.  Rabbi Gad Dishi¹⁷ has suggested that this meaning might illuminate several verses in Tanakh in which the more common definition of "to judge" or "execute judgement" is less fitting:
• Bereshit 6:3: "לֹא יָדוֹן רוּחִי בָאָדָם לְעֹלָם" – In this verse, Hashem might be saying that He will not strengthen the demigods born from the union of the "sons of God" and "daughters of Adam".  He will not allow them an immortal lifespan, as they, too, are partly made of human flesh. As such, they will live no longer than 120 years. See בני הא־להים and בנות האדם for other understandings of the verse and the story as a whole.
• Bereshit 14:14: "וַיִּרְדֹּף עַד דָּן" – It is unclear what location is referred to by the marker "עַד דָּן". RadakBereshit 14:14About R. David Kimchi suggests that it either refers to the future location of the tribe of Dan and is so called after its future name¹⁸ or that there is another place with the same name.¹⁹ It is possible, however, that "דָּן" here simply means fortress and the verse is saying that Avraham chased the kings back to their fortifications and then returned home.
• Bereshit 30:6: "וַתֹּאמֶר רָחֵל דָּנַנִּי אֱלֹהִים וְגַם שָׁמַע בְּקֹלִי".  It is difficult to understand why Rachel would be saying that Hashem "judged" her at the moment of granting her a child.²⁰  If, however, "דָּנַנִּי" is related to the Akkadian "dunnunu",²¹ Rachel might simply be thanking Hashem for empowering and strengthening her in granting her wish.
• Devarim 32:36: "כִּי יָדִין י״י עַמּוֹ וְעַל עֲבָדָיו יִתְנֶחָם" – Hashem's judging of the nation in the first clause of the verse appears at odds with the continuation which speaks of Hashem's compassion on the people. As such, many commentators²² understand the verse to mean that Hashem will avenge His nation (i.e. judge their enemies, not them). Alternatively, in light of the Akkadian, it might mean that Hashem will empower the nation.  This works well with the end of the verse which explains the necessity of Hashem's intervention: "כִּי יִרְאֶה כִּי אָזְלַת יָד וְאֶפֶס עָצוּר וְעָזוּב".  Since the nation has lost its power, Hashem will return it.²³ 
• Zekharyah 3:7: "וְגַם אַתָּה תָּדִין אֶת בֵּיתִי" – This is one of the tasks given to Yehoshua, the high priest in the period of the return to Zion. RashiZekharyah 3:7-8About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and RadakZekharyah 3:7About R. David Kimchi suggest that in these words, Yehoshua is told to oversee/judge the Beit Hamikdash or priests.²⁴  If one applies the Akkadian meaning of strength, however, it is possible that Hashem is telling Yehoshua to back and strengthen the house of Zerubavel, the political leader of the time (alluded to in the next verse, "כִּי הִנְנִי מֵבִיא אֶת עַבְדִּי צֶמַח").²⁵
• יֵשׁ – The word "יש" is commonly understood as a particle relating to ownership or being. V. Hurowitz²⁶ notes that the Akkadian equivalent is "basu", often translated as "there is" but also meaning "to exist". This verb has a noun form, "busu", which means possessions or valuables. As such, he suggests that it is possible that the Hebrew "יש" might similarly function as both a noun and verb.  This understanding might elucidate the meaning of several verses:
• Mishlei 8:21: "לְהַנְחִיל אֹהֲבַי יֵשׁ וְאֹצְרֹתֵיהֶם אֲמַלֵּא" – Commentators who read "יֵשׁ" as a verb are forced to posit that the verse is assuming an unspoken noun.  Thus, for example, RadakShemuel I 7:2Melakhim II 9:30Yeshayahu 2:16Mishlei 8:21About R. David Kimchi explains, "יש לי מתנה טובה להנחיל אותה לאוהבי".‎²⁷  V. Hurowitz, instead, explains that the the word "יֵשׁ" is parallel to "אוצרות", and functions here as a noun, meaning valuables.
• Mishlei 13:23: רׇב אֹכֶל נִיר רָאשִׁים וְיֵשׁ נִסְפֶּה בְּלֹא מִשְׁפָּט – V. Hurowitz suggests that perhaps here, too, "יֵשׁ" should be defined as wealth. If so, the verse might be highlighting the changing fortunes of people. The work of even the poor might produce much food, while a person's wealth might dissipate.²⁸
• כַּוָּנִים – This word appears in both Yirmeyahu 7:18 and 44:19²⁹ and, due to the context of idolatry in both verses, is understood by RadakYirmeyahu 7:18Amos 5:26About R. David Kimchi and ShadalYirmeyahu 7:18Yirmeyahu 8:18About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto to refer to some type of food/cake offering.³⁰  This meaning is supported by the Akkadian cognate, "kamaֿnu", which refers to sweet cakes which were used in the worship of Ishtar.³¹  This fits well with the full phrase "לַעֲשׂוֹת כַּוָּנִים לִמְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם‎" as Ishtar is also known as "queen of the heavens" (מְלֶכֶת = מַלְכַּת).³² [Ishtar is further associated with the star Venus so even if one takes a more simple reading of "מְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם", it might refer to her specifically.]
• לִבָּה - In Yechezkel 16:30, the prophet rebukes the people "מָה אֲמֻלָה לִבָּתֵךְ...  בַּעֲשׂוֹתֵךְ אֶת כׇּל אֵלֶּה מַעֲשֵׂה אִשָּׁה זוֹנָה שַׁלָּטֶת.". Rashi and many others assume that "לִבָּתֵךְ" is a feminine form of the word "לב", meaning heart, and that "אֲמֻלָה " is related to the word "אומלל" meaning weak.  Hashem blames the nation's sins on their frailty of their hearts which is so easily swayed.  No where else, though, is there a feminine version of the word "לב", leading others to suggest that perhaps "לִבָּתֵךְ" is connected to the Akkadian "libbatu", meaning anger.³³  If so, Hashem is saying how he is filled (אֲמֻלָה = מלא) with anger against the people.
• למד – This root generally refers to learning or teaching.  The verb appears in Shir HaShirim 8:2, "אֶנְהָגְךָ אֲבִיאֲךָ אֶל בֵּית אִמִּי תְּלַמְּדֵנִי" where it is commonly understood within the metaphoric understanding of the book to refer to instruction in Torah and mitzvot.³⁴ It is less clear, though, what it would mean according to the simple sense of the verse.  S.M. Paul³⁵ notes that in Akkadian, "lamadu" can refer to sexual knowledge. [He compares it to the root "ידע" (and the Akkadian equivalent idu) which can also connote both intellectual and sexual knowledge, noting the relationship between learning/teaching (למד) and knowing (ידע).] Accordingly, the beloved would be speaking of her hopes to engage in relations with her lover.\
• מַבּוּל – Though generally translated as "flood", the exact etymology of the word "מַבּוּל" is debated. RashbamDayyakot LeRashbam Bereshit 6:17About R. Shemuel b. Meir suggests that it stems from the root "נבל",‎³⁶ meaning to wither and fall,³⁷ referring to the destruction wrought,³⁸ while Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 6:17About R. Avraham ibn Ezra claims that it relates to the root "בלל", intermingling or confusion, the result of the deluge. R. D"Z HoffmannBereshit 6:17About R. David Zvi Hoffmann brings an additional possibility, that מַבּוּל might come from the root "יבל", meaning to lead, flow or stream. None of these are without difficulty, and it is possible that the word is related to Akkadian, where bubbulu³⁹ means inundation.⁴⁰ 
• Outside of the flood story, the word "מַבּוּל" appears only once, in Tehillim 29:10, "י״י לַמַּבּוּל יָשָׁב וַיֵּשֶׁב י״י מֶלֶךְ לְעוֹלָם".  It is not clear, however, what role the word plays in context and what the verse is trying to express. C. Cohen⁴¹ suggests that perhaps "לַמַּבּוּל" is related to the Akkadian phrase lam abubi which literally means "before the Flood", and is understood as "from time immemorial".  If so, the two halves of the verse are parallel.⁴²
• מַבְלִיגִיתִי – This word is a hapax legomenon, appearing only in Yirmeyahu 8:18: "מַבְלִיגִיתִי עֲלֵי יָגוֹן עָלַי לִבִּי דַוָּי".  Many commentators⁴³ connect it to the verb "בלג", and from context, understand it to be a noun meaning strength or restraint.⁴⁴  In contrast, Y. Avishur⁴⁵ suggests that it is the feminine form of "מבליג" which is parallel to the Akkadian "balaggu", referring to either a musical instrument or song.  The verse would mean "and my instrument turned for me into grief", similar to Iyyov 30:31, "וַיְהִי לְאֵבֶל כִּנֹּרִי".
• מֵרֵעֵהוּ – The root "מרע" appears in several places in Tanakh, in Bereshit 26:26,⁴⁶ Shofetim 14-15, Shemuel II 3:8 and Mishlei 19:7.  In each case, commentators define it as a friend or companion.  The context of Bereshit 26, however, might make one question whether this is the most fitting translation there as well. The verses speak of the covenant between Avimelekh and Yitzchak, stating "וַאֲבִימֶלֶךְ הָלַךְ אֵלָיו מִגְּרָר וַאֲחֻזַּת מֵרֵעֵהוּ וּפִיכֹל שַׂר צְבָאוֹ". Why would Avimelekh bring both his military commander and a mere "friend" to negotiate? V. Hurowitz⁴⁷ suggests that perhaps "מֵרֵעֵהוּ" in this verse is equivalent to the Akkadian "merhu", meaning שר הרועים. Avimelekh brought two important officers with him, not one of his friends.⁴⁸
• נהה – In both Yechezkel 32:8 and Mikhah 2:4, this root means wail or lament.⁴⁹  However, this definition is more difficult to apply to Shemuel I 7:2, "וַיִּנָּהוּ כׇּל בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל אַחֲרֵי י״י".  What would it mean that the nation "lamented after Hashem"? MenachemShemuel I 7:2About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and RadakYirmeyahu 7:18Yirmeyahu 8:18Amos 5:26About R. David Kimchi suggests that the verse might mean that the nation cried and mourned as they repented of their ways.⁵⁰ M. Weinfeld⁵¹ offers a different explanation in light of Akkadian, suggesting that "נהה" is related to the Akkadian "ne'u", meaning "to turn to". The verse states simply that the nation turned back to Hashem.
• נְחֹשֶׁת – Throughout Tanakh, "נְחֹשֶׁת" means copper, yet this meaning is difficult in Yechezkel 16:36: "יַעַן הִשָּׁפֵךְ נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ וַתִּגָּלֶה עֶרְוָתֵךְ".  From context, most commentators understand the phrase "הִשָּׁפֵךְ נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" to be parallel to "וַתִּגָּלֶה עֶרְוָתֵךְ." Thus, RashiYechezkel 16:36About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and RadakYechezkel 16:36About R. David Kimchi suggest that "נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" means the women's edge or bottom, pointing as evidence to the verse "וְחָרָה נְחֻשְׁתָּהּ" (Yechezkel 24:11) and the Mishnaic phrase⁵² "נחשתו של תנור" which speak of the bottom of a vessel.⁵³ I. Gluska⁵⁴ agrees that the two halves of the verse are parallel, but suggests that the word "נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" should be understood in light of its Akkadain cognate, "nahsati/u", meaning a women's menstrual flow.
• סֻלָּם – Though often translated as "ladder,"⁵⁵ the word סֻלָּם is actually a hapax legomenon (appearing only in Bereshit 28:12) whose exact meaning is unknown.  The word might stem from the Hebrew root סלל which relates to a path or ramp, or alternatively to the Akkadian "simmiltu" which means a stairway. The latter possibility has led many scholars to suggest that what Yaakov saw in his dream was actually a ziggurat, a stepped Mesopotamian temple which was believed to connect heaven and earth.⁵⁶  If so, it is possible that the image of Hashem at the top of the "סֻלָּם" held no deep message, but was simply a representation of Hashem in His glory, sitting in His temple,⁵⁷ similar to Yeshayahu's vision of Hashem on His throne.⁵⁸
• פֹּת – Yirmeyahu 3:17 reads, "וְשִׂפַּח אֲדֹנָי קׇדְקֹד בְּנוֹת צִיּוֹן וַי״י פׇּתְהֵן יְעָרֶה".  The meaning of the word "פׇּתְהֵן" is unclear. Ibn EzraYeshayahu 3:17About R. Avraham ibn Ezra⁵⁹ and RadakYeshayahu 3:17About R. David Kimchi suggests that it refers to a woman's private parts, which Hashem is to unveil.⁶⁰ Ibn EzraYeshayahu 3:17About R. Avraham ibn Ezra and ShadalYeshayahu 3:17About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto also bring the alternative possibility that the word פֹּת is parallel to "קׇדְקֹד", with Ibn Ezra relating it the word "פאה" (head of hair) and Shadal to the Aramaic "אפותא," meaning forehead.  A closer cognate might be the Akkadian "putu", also meaning forehead.⁶¹
• צִיצִת – The word צִיצִת appears in both Bemidbar 15:38-39, "וְעָשׂוּ לָהֶם צִיצִת עַל כַּנְפֵי בִגְדֵיהֶם" and Yechezkel 8:3, "וַיִּקָּחֵנִי בְּצִיצִת רֹאשִׁי" and has been understood either to refer to a tassel⁶² or to be related to the verb "צוץ", meaning to gaze.⁶³ It is also possible that the word relates to the Akkadian, "sissiktu", meaning fringe or hem.⁶⁴ This connection might shed light on the role and symbolism behind the mitzvah of tzitzit:
• In Akkadian, tying or cutting "sissiktu" plays a role in legal contexts, where knotting a hem symbolizes marriage (or other agreements) and cutting it marked divorce.⁶⁵  This might suggest that the knotted strings at the end of tzitzit symbolize the "marriage" of Hashem and Israel.
• In the ancient near east, hems were also a means of personal identification and impressing them onto a clay tablet could serve as a seal and signature, marking ownership.⁶⁶ This matches R"Y Bekhor ShorBemidbar 15:38-39About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor's understanding of the commandment, "כי הציצית כמו חותם שבכסותו, שעושין לעבד סימן שהוא משועבד לרבו."
• S. M. Paul⁶⁷ further notes that in Akkadian texts, grasping a hem of a garment (sissikta sabatu) often symbolizes submission and a show of allegiance to the god / king whose garment was grasped.  This opens the possibility that in Tanakh, too, the action holds the same connotation and might bear on various episodes in Tanakh which speak of the grasping of cloak hems:
• Shemuel I 15:27: "וַיִּסֹּב שְׁמוּאֵל לָלֶכֶת וַיַּחֲזֵק בִּכְנַף מְעִילוֹ וַיִּקָּרַע" – Many question whether it is Shaul or Shemuel who holds and tears the cloak in this verse. In light of the context of supplication and submission in Akkadian texts, R. Brauner⁶⁸ concludes that in this verse it must be Shaul holding onto Shemuel's cloak, in a show of subservience after having admitted to his wrongdoing.⁶⁹ 
• Shemuel I 24:4-5: "וַיִּכְרֹת אֶת כְּנַף הַמְּעִיל אֲשֶׁר לְשָׁאוּל בַּלָּט" – If grasping a corner is a sign of allegiance, it is possible that David's cutting off the hem of Shaul's garment in this verse was symbolic of his cutting of ties and loyalty to the king (representing a "divorce" from him).
• Zekharyah 8:23 – The chapter describes how in the future many foreigners will turn to God and "יַחֲזִיקוּ עֲשָׂרָה אֲנָשִׁים מִכֹּל לְשֹׁנוֹת הַגּוֹיִם וְהֶחֱזִיקוּ בִּכְנַף אִישׁ יְהוּדִי לֵאמֹר נֵלְכָה עִמָּכֶם". In light of the Akkadian, the verse appears to be stating that the foreigners will show their allegiance to the nation of Israel.⁷⁰
• תַּחַשׁ‎⁷¹ – This word appears almost exclusively in the context of the coverings of the Mishkan and its vessels, where it is usually accompanies the word "עוֹר", suggesting that it is related to animal skins.‎⁷²  It appears once more, in Yechezkel 16:10, "וָאֶנְעֲלֵךְ תָּחַשׁ". 
• • Color –The SeptuagintShemot 26:14About the Septuagint, Aramaic TargumimShemot 26:14About Targum Onkelos and several opinions in Yerushalmi Shabbat 2:3:3⁷³ suggest that it is a color,⁷⁴ supported by the context of many verses in which it appears where it is associated with other colored coverings. S. Ahituv and H. Tadmor⁷⁵ agree, suggesting that the word is cognate with the Akkadian dušû or duḫšû, a yellowish-orange color.
  • Hide – In contrast, many medieval commentators suggest that it refers to the hide of an animal (and/or the animal itself).⁷⁶ This might be supported by its usage in Yechezkel 16 where it is found amongst a list of other materials (rather than colors). B. Noonan⁷⁷ supports this meaning from Egyptian, suggesting that תחש might be related to the Egyptian ṯḥs, a type of Egyptian leather.

Egyptian

It has been suggested that several words in Tanakh, especially rare words which appear primarily within narratives that relate to Egypt, might be loanwords from Egyptian. As such, looking to the Egyptian equivalents might shed light on their meaning. Additionally, even in cases where a word might not be Egyptian in origin, recognizing the Egyptian backdrop and usage of certain phrases might further elucidate their meaning.

Egyptian Loanwords

• אַבְרֵךְ – This word appears but once in Tanakh, in Bereshit 41:43, which describes how, after Yosef's appointment as second in command, he rode in a chariot and the people called before him: "אַבְרֵךְ". Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 41:43About R. Avraham ibn Ezra connects the word "אַבְרֵךְ" to the root "ברך", suggesting that all cried before Yosef, "I will kneel and bow".  ShadalBereshit 41:43About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto, quoting Gesenius, reaches a similar conclusion, but by suggesting that the proclamation is a loanword from Egyptian meaning to bow one's head.⁷⁸ More modern scholars have proposed other Egyptian connections suggesting that the word might relate to ı͗ b-r.k , meaning "attention!" or i.brk, meaning "do homage".⁷⁹
• אָח – Due to the context of burning fire, most agree that this word, appearing only in Yirmeyahu 36:22-23, refers to either a brasier/firepot or the fuel that burns inside it.  Commentators dispute the etymology of the word, with Ibn Kaspi Yirmeyahu 36:22About R. Yosef ibn Kaspisuggesting that it relates to brotherhood, as all gather in unity around the fire,  and MalbimYirmeyahu Beur HaMilot 36:22About R. Meir Leibush Weiser positing that it relates to the word "אָחוּ", suggesting that when dried, this was used for burning.  It is likely, however, that the word is a loanword from Egypt, where 'h means brasier.⁸⁰
• אָחוּ –This word appears three times in Tanakh, in Bereshit 41:2 and 18 (in the context of Paroh's dream, "וַתִּרְעֶינָה בָּאָחוּ") and in Iyyov 8:11 (יִשְׂגֶּה אָחוּ בְלִי מָיִם). According to many, the word "אַחִים" in Hoshea 13:15, "כִּי הוּא בֵּין אַחִים יַפְרִיא" is simply a plural form of the same root.⁸¹ Based on context, most commentators understand the word to refer to grass/reeds or an area in which these grow.⁸²  Shadal Bereshit 41:2About R. Shemuel David Luzzattosuggests that it is an Egyptian loanword and more modern scholars⁸³ concur, noting that the Egyptian equivalent, Ꜣ ḫw,  originally referred to the land affected by the annual inundation of the Nile and later to pasture in general.
• אַחְלָמָה – The identity of this stone from the Choshen (mentioned in Shemot 28:19 and Shemot 39:12) is debated. Some relate it to the Egyptian ḫnm(t),⁸⁴ understood to be a stone with a reddish-orange hue, such as red jasper.  For other possible identifications and further discussion, see Stones of the Choshen.
• אָסְנַת – Bereshit 41:50 identifies the wife given to Yosef as "אָסְנַת בַּת פּוֹטִי פֶרַע כֹּהֵן אוֹן".‎⁸⁵  The name is generally understood to mean "she belongs to (the goddess) Neith".⁸⁶
• בֹּחַן‎⁸⁷ – Yeshayahu 28:16 speaks of an "אֶבֶן בֹּחַן" which will be placed as a foundation in Tzion.  The word "בֹּחַן" is a hapax legomenon whose meaning is debated.  RashiYeshayahu 28:16About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and RadakYeshayahu 28:16About R. David Kimchi relate it to the word "בַחַן" in Yeshayahu 32:14 (אַרְמוֹן נֻטָּשׁ הֲמוֹן עִיר עֻזָּב עֹפֶל וָבַחַן), a fortress or watchtower, suggesting that an "אֶבֶן בֹּחַן" is a particularly strong or massive rock. Ibn KaspiYeshayahu 28:16About R. Yosef ibn Kaspi, in contrast, assumes "בֹּחַן" relates to the verb "בחן", and refers to a tried and tested stone.⁸⁸ B. Noonan⁸⁹ raises a third possibility, that "בֹּחַן' is borrowed from the Egyptian bḫn, meaning greywacke, a type of sandstone used heavily in construction.
• חַרְטֻמִּים – The word חַרְטֻמִּים appears first in Bereshit 41:8 and then several more times throughout the early Exodus narratives and twice more in Daniel.⁹⁰
• From context, it is understood by many commentators to mean diviner or magician.  ShadalBereshit 41:8About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto cites several scholars who, instead, suggest that it stems from the root "חרט" and referred to those Egyptian wisemen or priests who were experts in hieroglyphics, and thus in symbol interpretation.⁹¹
• Shadal also points to scholars who suggest it is loanword from Egypt. Cf. T. Lambdin⁹² who notes those who have associated it with the root ḥr-tp, the title of a priest or magician, but is skeptical of the identification.⁹³ A.S. Yahuda⁹⁴ suggests a different etymology, that the words is composed from two Egyptian words "ḥry", meaning "he who is upon (in charge of)" and "dm", meaning papyrus scroll or books.  The word would refer to the learned men in charge of the (magical) books.  Though such an expression is not attested to, the word "ḥry" appears frequently in titles.
• יְאֹר – In Tanakh, the יאור refers primarily to the Nile, but also to other rivers.⁹⁵ RambanBereshit 41:2About R. Moshe b. Nachman suggests that it stems from the word "אור" (similar to the meaning of נהר), pointing to several verses in which אור might refer to rain (or water).⁹⁶ ShadalBereshit 41:1About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto, however, already notes that the word is likely Egyptian in origin, where the original Egyptian name for the Nile was itrw (meaning: "great river"), but is later attested to without the t, as ı͗ rw, from which "יְאֹר" might be adopted.
• לֶשֶׁם – The identity of this stone from the Choshen is disputed. T. Lambdin⁹⁷ suggests that the Hebrew לשם might be related to the Egyptian nšm(t), identified by some as the bluish-green feldspar (amazonite). See Stones of the Choshen for more.
• נֹפֶךְ –This stone is mentioned with regards to the Choshen (Shemot 28:18 and Shemot 39:11), the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), and also in Yechezkel 27:16, in the context of the merchandise of Aram. It is not clear, however, to which stone is referred. T. Lambdin⁹⁸ suggests that "נֹפֶךְ" might relate to the Egyptian mfkt, referring to a greenish-blue stone such as turquoise or perhaps malachite.⁹⁹ For discussion, see Stones of the Choshen.
• פּוֹטִיפַר / פּוֹטִי פֶרַע – Potiphar (Bereshit 39:1) is possibly an abbreviation of the name Potiphera (Bereshit 41:45),¹⁰⁰ a name attested to In Egyptian sources as pꜣ-dj-pꜣ-rꜥ,¹⁰¹ meaning "He whom Re (the sun god) has given."¹⁰²  Alternatively the name relates tot he Egyptian Pa-diu-par, meaning "given of the house" with padi meaning "give" and "Par" being a house (as in the name Paroh, below). If so it might relate to his function as a steward o f the house.
• פַּרְעֹה – The title Paroh comes from the Egyptian pr-ʿꜢ, meaning "the great house" and originally referred to the palace itself, but already in the Old Kingdom period was used to refer to the king.¹⁰³ 
• צׇפְנַת פַּעְנֵחַ – In Bereshit 41:45, Yosef is given a new name by Paroh, "צׇפְנַת פַּעְנֵחַ". Commentators debate whether this is a Hebrew translation of the original Egyptian name or if Tanakh is preserving the Egyptian itself.
• Assuming the former, many¹⁰⁴ follow OnkelosBereshit 41:45About Targum Onkelos in understanding the name to mean "revealer of mysteries," assuming that "צׇפְנַת" relates to the root "צפן," to hide.¹⁰⁵
• Others look to the Egyptian, with Steindorf¹⁰⁶ suggesting that it relates to D̲(d)-pnt(r)-ĕf-ʿnḫ and means "the god speaks and he lives". Some have argued against this suggestion, noting that this type of name has never been found in Egyptian sources without the inclusion of a particular deity.¹⁰⁷  This leads R. Englebach¹⁰⁸ to suggest that צׇפְנַת is a metathesis of צתנף (zatnap) which is Egyptian for “who is called”, i.e. Yosef who is called "iP’ʿnḫ”- one who lives.¹⁰⁹
• שְׂכִיּוֹת – This word appears but once in Tanakh, in Yeshayahu 2:16, "וְעַל כׇּל אֳנִיּוֹת תַּרְשִׁישׁ וְעַל כׇּל שְׂכִיּוֹת הַחֶמְדָּה". Many commentators connect it to the noun "מַשְׂכִּית", a word whose meaning is also disputed and is understood by some¹¹⁰ to refer to images (from the root ש/סכה, to see), and by others¹¹¹ to a stone floor covering (from the root ש/סכך).  When applied to Yeshayahu, the verse might speak of beautiful images (see RadakYeshayahu 2:16About R. David Kimchi), or perhaps to paved palaces (see RashiBereshit 41:40Yeshayahu 2:16Yechezkel 16:36Zekharyah 3:7-8Mishlei 8:21Shir HaShirim 8:2About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and ShadalYeshayahu 2:16About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto). T. Lambdin,¹¹² however, suggests that שְׂכִיּוֹת is actually a loanword from the Egyptian skty which means boat.  If so, the two halves of the verse are parallel.
  
• תַּחַשׁ‎ – See the discussion above (under Akkadian cognates).
• תֻּכִּי – This word appears in the context of Shelomo's imports from his navy in Tarshish mentioned in Melakhim I 10:22.¹¹³  Targum YonatanMelakhim I 10:22Yirmeyahu 3:17About Targum Yonatan (Neviim)¹¹⁴ translates the word as "טַוָסִין" or peacocks. If so, it might be related to the Tamil,¹¹⁵ tōkai, referring to the plume of a peacock. Others suggest that it might be a loanword from Egyptian, tꜢ -ky.t, meaning an African ape.¹¹⁶
  
• Measurements – It has been suggested that the names of the following measurements might be borrowed from Egyptian:¹¹⁷ איפה (a dry measure of volume) from ı͗ p.t, הין (a liquid measure) from hnw, זרת (a span) from ḏr.t or gr.t (meaning hand) and קב (a measure of capacity) from qb.
• Plants and fabrics – The names of many plants and fabrics might also be Egyptian origin.¹¹⁸ Several examples follow: בד (linen) from bdꜢ, גמא (reeds) from qmꜢ (or gmy), הֹבֶן (ebony), from hbn, זפת (pitch) from sft, סוף (seaweed or reeds) from ṯwf (or ṯwfy), referring to papyrus thickets, ערה (a type of reed), from ʿr, קיקיון (perhaps a castor oil plant), from kꜢ kꜢ (or kyky), שיטה (accacia) from šnd.t, שושן‎¹¹⁹‎ from ššn, and שש (fine linen) from šs.

Egyptian Terminology

• וְעַל פִּיךָ יִשַּׁק כׇּל עַמִּי – In Bereshit 41:40, Paroh tells Yosef that he will be in charge of his house, and "וְעַל פִּיךָ יִשַּׁק כׇּל עַמִּי". As the common translation of "kiss" does not seem applicable, commentators look for alternative translations.
• Rashi Bereshit 41:43About R. Shelomo Yitzchakisuggests that the word means to provide, referencing Bereshit 15:2 "בֶן מֶשֶׁק בֵּיתִי", while RashbamBereshit 41:40About R. Shemuel b. Meir suggests that it relates to "נשק" (ammunition), and that Paroh was speaking of a military role to be played by Yosef.
• A. S. Yahuda¹²⁰ suggests that, in light of Egyptian terminology, one may actually maintain the prevalent understanding of "יִשַּׁק" as kiss, pointing to several Egyptian texts in which the expression to "kiss the food" is used metaphorically in ceremonial speech to refer to feeding. 
• N. Shupak¹²¹ adds that the reference to a "mouth" (וְעַל פִּיךָ) might be an allusion to a specific Egyptian title, "mouth of the king", a description of an officer who served as advisor to the king, or alternatively, to the title "chief mouth of the king", an officer appointed to supervise various projects in times of emergency.
• אֲשֶׁר עַל הַבַּיִת – In Bereshit 43:15 and 19, we read of "הָאִישׁ אֲשֶׁר עַל בֵּית יוֹסֵף".  Paroh similarly tells Yosef: "אַתָּה תִּהְיֶה עַל בֵּיתִי"  (Bereshit 41:40). This, too, is a known position in Egypt, where the title ḥry-pr means "he who is over the house" and referred to a high dignity.¹²² The person who was in charge of the kings house was tasked (among other things) with the collection of taxes from agricultural produce and the storing of grains,¹²³ and as such the title is very fitting for Yosef.
• אָב לְפַרְעֹה – In Bereshit 45:8, Yosef tells his brothers that he was placed as an "אָב לְפַרְעֹה".  A. S. Yahuda suggests that this is a Hebrew translation of a known Egyptian title. In Egypt the word it ntr, father of the god, was a priestly title borne by various officers, including viziers.  As Paroh was considered a god, those who served him could be given the designation "the god's father".

Persian

• בִּירָה – See the discussion above under Akkadian cognates that this word might related to either the Akkadian "birtu" (a castle), or to the Persian "bâru" (a rampart or bulwark).
• דָּת – This word only appears in the later books of Tanakh and is likely a loan word from the Persian where "dâta" means law or decree.¹²⁴
•  כַּרְפַּס – This word is a hapax legomenon, appearing only in Esther 1:6. It might be a loan word from Persia, originally from Sanskrit, where "karpâsa" refers to cotton or fine linen (BDB, "כרפס"). Alternatively, the word refers to a color, perhaps green (Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, relating it to the green vegetable named "כַַּרְפַּס" (celery or parsley). Cf. Bavli Megillah 12a and R"Y Kara that "כַַּרְפַּס" might be composed of two words, "כרים של פסים", striped pillows.
• הַפַּרְתְּמִים – This word appears only in the books of Esther and Daniel¹²⁵ and commentators question whether it is a loan word from Persia (Rashi, Ibn Ezra) or a Hebrew word (Hoil Moshe). Modern scholars assume the former, connecting it to the Old Persian "fratama", meaning "first" (BDB, "פַּרְתְּמִים"). As such, the word might be equivalent in meaning to the term "הַיֹּשְׁבִים רִאשֹׁנָה בַּמַּלְכוּת" (Esther 1:14), referring to important governors (see Rashi).
• פִּתְגָם – This word appears only in Kohelet 8:11 and Esther 1:20. It might be a loan word from Persian where "patigâma" refers to a command, matter, or edict. It might have made its way into Hebrew via the Aramaic, פִּתְגָמָא, a matter, which appears in both Daniel and Ezra (BDB, "פִּתְגָם").
• פַּתְשֶׁגֶן – The word "פַּתְשֶׁגֶן" appears only in the book of Esther and is likely a Persian loanword which made its way into Hebrew via the Aramaic "פַּרְשֶׁגֶן", mentioned in Ezra 4:11 (BDB, "פַּרְשֶׁגֶן")

¹ See also Onkelos Devarim 32:43About Targum Onkelosand the first opinion brought by Ibn EzraDevarim 32:43About R. Avraham ibn Ezra

² He writes, "רוצה לומר: וטהר אדמתו, אדמת עמו". See also Shadal who cites Rosenmüller and Gesenius as explaining similarly, "אדמתו של עמו, אדמת עמו". If so, the verse might be compared to others which similarly have an extraneous vav, such as Tehillim 50:10, "כִּי לִי כׇל חַיְתוֹ יָעַר" (meaning חית יער) or Bemidbar 24:3, "נְאֻם בִּלְעָם בְּנוֹ בְעֹר" (meaning בן בעור).

³ According to him, the subject of "אַדְמָתוֹ" is not Hashem but the nation itself.

⁴ See Tur Sinai, "וכפר אדמתו עמו (דברים לב, מג)", Tarbiz 24:2 (1955): 232.

⁵ See Y. Avishur, "מלים וצירופים מהמקרא לאור מקביליהם באכדית", Shenaton: An Annual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies 2 (1977): 11-17.

⁶ In this he follows H. L. Ginsburg, "סיום שירת האזינו (דברים לב, לד—מג)", Tarbiz 24:1 (1955): 1-3, who connects "אדמתו" to the Ugaritic "אדמעת", meaning tears.

⁷ See V. Hurowitz, "הילכו שניים יחדיו? עיון במלווה אכדי חדש לעברית ולארמית של המקרא", Lĕšonénu: A Journal for the Study of the Hebrew Language and Cognate Subjects 35 (2010): 359-383.

⁸ See H. Tawil, An Akkadian Lexical Companion for Biblical Hebrew: Etymological-Semantic and Idiomatic Equivalents with Supplement on Biblical Aramaic (New Jersey, 2009).

⁹ In many of these, the word "אֱלִיל" appears to function as an adjective rather than a noun.

¹⁰ Rashbam and Ibn Ezra reach a similar conclusion, but from the Hebrew alone, suggesting that the word means "inside", as in the phrase "מִבַּיִת וּמִחוּץ" (inside and out).

¹¹ See H. Tadmor, "ברית ושבועת אמונים במזרח הקדום: גישתו של היסטוריון," Shenaton: An Annual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies 5-6 (1982-1983): 160-161, and the literature cited there.

¹² This root refers to eating, as in Shemuel II 13:5, Shemuel II 12:17 and Shemuel II 13:5.

¹³ See also Ibn EzraDevarim 32:43Yeshayahu 3:17Bereshit First Commentary 6:18Shir HaShirim First Commentary Midrash 8:2About R. Avraham ibn Ezra.

¹⁴ See the citation above.

¹⁵ See CAD 3.1: 21, entry dagalu.

¹⁶ See R. Gordis, “The Root dgl in the Song of Songs,” JBL 88 [1969]: 203-204.

¹⁷ In a private correspondence regarding a still unpublished paper.

¹⁸ Yehoshua 19:47 / Shofetim 18:29 describes how the tribe of Dan conquered Leshem / Layish and changed its name to Dan after their ancestor. As such, the city only received the name Dan after the death of Moshe.

¹⁹ See the discussions in ShadalBereshit 14:14About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto and Hoil MosheBereshit 14:14About R. Moshe Yitzchak Ashkenazi regarding suggestions that the name is a later addition/correction to Torah (and not simply the Torah writing with knowledge of the future). Shadal rejects the possibility out of hand, writing, "אבל שיגיה אדם ויחליף מילה בתורה לא ראינו ולא שמענו", preferring to say that the verse refers to a different location with the same name.

²⁰ As such, many commentators suggest that the phrase "דָּנַנִּי אֱלֹהִים" refers to the original decree of barrenness. Rachel is justifying Hashem's making her barren, but simultaneously thanking Him for listening to her prayers and giving her a child. It is still somewhat difficult, though, that she would call her son "דן" focusing on the judgment rather than the cure.

²¹ The doubling of the nun in "דָּנַנִּי" might further support that in this verse the root is related to the Akkadian.

²² See, for example, RashbamDevarim 32:36About R. Shemuel b. Meir, Ibn Ezra,Devarim 32:36About R. Avraham ibn Ezra and R"Y Bekhor ShorDevarim 32:36About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor.

²³ See also Tehillim 54:3 "אֱלֹהִים בְּשִׁמְךָ הוֹשִׁיעֵנִי וּבִגְבוּרָתְךָ תְדִינֵנִי" which might be explained similarly.

²⁴ R. Eliezer of BeaugencyZekharyah 3:7About R. Eliezer of Beaugency, instead, assumes that "בֵּיתִי" refers to the nation as a whole, and connects this judgement to the general teaching functions of priests

²⁵ See RashiBereshit 41:40Bereshit 41:43Shemot 25:5Vayikra 26:1Devarim 32:43Yeshayahu 2:16Zekharyah 3:7-8About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and Ibn EzraZekharyah First Commentary 3:8About R. Avraham ibn Ezra.

²⁶ See V. A. Hurowitz, “Two Terms for Wealth in Proverbs VIII in Light of Akkadian.” Vetus Testamentum 50:2 (2000): 252–257.

²⁷ See Rashi similarly, "יש אתי נחלה רבה".

²⁸ According to this reading, it is not clear what the verse means to express by adding "בְּלֹא מִשְׁפָּט".

²⁹ RadakShemuel I 7:2Melakhim II 9:30Yeshayahu 2:16Amos 5:26About R. David Kimchi suggests that the word " כִּיּוּן" in Amos 5:26 ("וְאֵת כִּיּוּן צַלְמֵיכֶם") might be related as well.

³⁰ RadakAmos 5:26About R. David Kimchi raises the possibility that the word stems from the root כון, meaning to prepare.

³¹ See M. Held, "עיונים בלקסיקוגרפיה המקראית לאור האכדית", Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies 16 (1982): 76-85.

³² The phrase "מְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם" appears in both verses in Yirmeyahu, and in each is spelled without the expected aleph (מלאכת השמים).  This allows for the possibility that it should be related to the root "מלך" and might be translated as "queen of the heavens".  Cf. RashiBereshit 41:40Bereshit 41:43Shemot 25:5Yirmeyahu 7:18About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki who writes "כוכב הגדול היו קורין מלכת השמים ל׳ מלוכה". According to him, the verse likely refers to Venus, also associated with Ishtar.

³³ See Sefer Yechezkel, Encyclopedia Olam HaTanakh , ed.G. Brin (Tel Aviv, 1996):75.

³⁴ See RashiShir HaShirim 8:2About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, Ibn EzraShir HaShirim First Commentary Midrash 8:2About R. Avraham ibn Ezra, and MalbimShir HaShirim 8:2About R. Meir Leibush Weiser.

³⁵ See S. M. Paul, "Gleanings from the Biblical and Talmudic Lexica in Light of Akkadian", Minhah le-aNahum ed. M. Brettler and M. Fishbane (Sheffield, 1993): 242-256.

³⁶ He points out that the dagesh in the "bet" of מבול, suggests that one of the root letters is missing.

³⁷ In Assyrian, nabâlu means to destroy.

³⁸ See Radak who, instead, assumes the word describes the falling of the rain itself.

³⁹ As the mem and bet are often interchanged, linguistically the words are quite similar.

⁴⁰ See CAD 2: 298-299, entry bubbulu. One of the weaknesses in this suggestion, however, is the fact that the word never appears in any of the Akkadian flood stories, where instead we find the word abubu (CAD 1:1: 77-78, entry abubu)

⁴¹ See C. Cohen, "י"י למבול ישב (תהלים כ"ט:י') – פירוש חדש", Lĕšonénu: A Journal for the Study of the Hebrew Language and Cognate subjects 53:4 (1989): 193-201.

⁴² See also Y. N. Epstein, “מבול (Ps. 29, 10) — ذر", Tarbiz 12 (1940): 82, who, turning to  Arabic cognates, suggests that the word "מבול" here means "seat" or "throne"

⁴³ See RashiYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, R. Yosef KaraYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Yosef Kara, RadakYirmeyahu 8:18About R. David Kimchi, R. Yosef ibn KaspiYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Yosef ibn Kaspi.

⁴⁴ ShadalYirmeyahu 8:18About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto brings another possibility, "cheerfulness".

⁴⁵ See his article cited above.

⁴⁶ Commentators debate the role of the "mem" in the word "מֵרֵעֵהוּ" in this verse, with some suggesting it is part of the root (מרע) and others suggesting that it is secondary, and that the word means "מן הרעים שלו".

⁴⁷ See V. Hurowitz, "הילכו שניים יחדיו? עיון במלווה אכדי חדש לעברית ולארמית של המקרא", Lĕšonénu: A Journal for the Study of the Hebrew Language and Cognate Subjects 35 (2010): 359-383.

⁴⁸ It is also possible that even without the Akkadian cognate one can understand the verse to refer to an advisor or officer rather than a mere colleague.  See Divrei HaYamim I 27:33, "וַאֲחִיתֹפֶל יוֹעֵץ לַמֶּלֶךְ וְחוּשַׁי הָאַרְכִּי רֵעַ הַמֶּלֶךְ" where "רֵעַ" might be parallel to "יוֹעֵץ". If so, the word "מֵרֵעֵהוּ" in Bereshit 26:26 might then be translated as "מן הרעים שלו", that Avimelekh took "Achuzat, from among his advisors..."

⁴⁹ See also the noun forms, נהי and הי, which consistently mean lamentation.

⁵⁰ Rashi and Radak also raises the possibility that נהה takes a totally different meaning in this verse and refers to gathering, similar to the word "נקוו‎". See Yirmeyahu 3:17, "וְנִקְווּ אֵלֶיהָ כׇל הַגּוֹיִם לְשֵׁם י"י" and Targum YonatanYirmeyahu 3:17About Targum Yonatan (Neviim) there who explains, "וְיִתְנְהוֹן לְמִפְלַח בָּהּ כָּל עַמְמַיָא לִשְׁמָא דַייָ".

⁵¹ See M. Weinfeld, "Jeremiah and the Spiritual Metamorphosis of Israel", ZAW 88:1 (1976): 17-56.  See also the discussion in I. Gluska, "מקראות סתומים לאור האכדית", Beit MIkra 34:4 (1989): 357-359.

⁵² See Mishna Keilim 8:3Keilim 8:3Keilim 9:1Keilim 9:3About the Mishna, 9:1Keilim 9:1About the Mishna, and 9:3Keilim 9:3About the Mishna.

⁵³ In these cases, however, the connection to "נחושת" is still very evident, as the pot and oven are made of the metal.

⁵⁴ I. Gluska, "מקראות סתומים לאור האכדית", Beit MIkra 34:4 (1989): 357-359.

⁵⁵ This might be due to its contemporary usage.

⁵⁶ See discussion in Y. Peleg, "מהו ה'סלם' שראה יעקב בחלומו?‏‎" and the literature brought there.

⁵⁷ It would not be surprising that Yaakov imagined this as a ziggurat, the common temples of his time.

⁵⁸ Prof. Elitzur, "מגדל בבל וסולם יעקב", reprinted in ישראל והמקרא (Jerusalem, 2000): 44-50, explains that the allusion to Mesopotamian temples is actually meant to mock them. In contrast to Mesopotamian beliefs, Torah teaches that to connect to Hashem, one need not build a fancy temple, as even in a lowly open field, Yaakov is able to see "ה' נִצָּב עָלָיו".‎ See also the discussion in Yaakov's Dream.

⁵⁹ See his second explanation.

⁶⁰ Ibn Ezra connects it to the word "הַפֹּתוֹת" in Melakhim I 7:50, but the word's meaning there is ambiguous as well.

⁶¹ See H. Tawil, An Akkadian Lexical Companion for Biblical Hebrew: Etymological-Semantic and Idiomatic Equivalents with Supplement on Biblical Aramaic (New Jersey, 2009).

⁶² See RashiBereshit 41:40Bemidbar 15:38About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, RashbamBemidbar 15:38-39About R. Shemuel b. Meir, and Ibn EzraBemidbar 15:38About R. Avraham ibn Ezra who point to the context of Yechezkel (locks of hair) and suggest that the word refers to the strings attached to the garment's hem.  Encyclopedia Mikrait vol. 6, "צצית" (Jerusalem, 1971): 732 notes that in images from the Ancient Near East, members of the nobility are sometimes depicted with tassels on the fringes of their garments, suggesting that it was a marker of higher classes. This might support those who suggest that in being commanded to wear tzitzit, all of Israel is being told that they should strive to be a "kingdom of priests".

⁶³ See RashiBemidbar 15:38Devarim 32:43About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, RashbamBemidbar 15:38-39About R. Shemuel b. Meir and R"Y Bekhor ShorBemidbar 15:38-39About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor who connect this to the directive, "וּרְאִיתֶם אֹתוֹ וּזְכַרְתֶּם אֶת כׇּל מִצְוֺת י״י".

⁶⁴ Rabbi Gad Dishi has suggested this in private correspondence.  See also Encyclopedia Mikrait vol. 6, "צצית" (Jerusalem, 1971): 732-733, which raises the possibility but rejects it as unlikely.

⁶⁵ See CAD 15: 322, entry sissiktu.

⁶⁶ See CAD 15: 323, entry sissiktu.

⁶⁷ See S. M. Paul, "Gleanings from the Biblical and Talmudic Lexica in Light of Akkadian", Minhah le-aNahum ed. M. Brettler and M. Fishbane (Sheffield, 1993): 242-256.

⁶⁸ R.A. Brauner, "'To Grasp the Hem' and 1 Samuel 15.27", JANESCU 6 (1974): 35-38.

⁶⁹ According to him, the tearing is accidental. One, however, could suggest the opposite, that Shemuel intentionally tore Shaul's garment as a sign that he no longer viewed him as king and held no allegiance to him.  If so, though, one would have expected the active "וַיִּקְרַע" rather than the passive "וַיִּקָּרַע".

⁷⁰ See S. Paul cited above who makes this point.

⁷¹ For a comprehensive analysis of the various meanings that have been proposed for this term, see B. Noonan, "Hide or Hue? Defining Hebrew תחש", Biblica 93:4 (2012): 580–589.

⁷² See, for instance, the command to create coverings for the Mishkan in Shemot 26:14, " וְעָשִׂיתָ מִכְסֶה לָאֹהֶל עֹרֹת אֵילִם מְאׇדָּמִים וּמִכְסֵה עֹרֹת תְּחָשִׁים מִלְמָעְלָה"

⁷³ See also Kohelet Rabbah 1:9.

⁷⁴ While the Septuagint suggests that it is a blue hue, the Aramaic translations point to vermillon and the opinions is Yerushalmi Shabbat to blue or violet.

⁷⁵ See Encyclopedia Mikrait Vol. 8, "תחש" (Jerusalem, 1982): 520-521.

⁷⁶ They disagree regarding the specific animal to which it might refer. RashiShemot 25:5Zekharyah 3:7-8Mishlei 8:21Shir HaShirim 8:2About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, following Bavli Shabbat 28bShabbat 28bAbout the Bavli, suggests that it was a unicorn, created especially for this purpose. Ibn EzraShemot First Commentary 25:5About R. Avraham ibn Ezra points to an ox and RalbagShemot Beur HaMilot 25:5About R. Levi b. Gershom to a goat, both noting that the skin would need to be tough enough for making shoes (as implied by the context of the word in Yechezkel).  Finally, Shadal brings the opinion of Gesenius who suggests that it was some sort of sea creature. Cf. Brown, Driver and Briggs,  who suggest that it might be cognate with the Arabic tuḫas meaning dunong or dolphin. [It is not clear, however, from where the Israelites would have had access to dolphin skins, unless they had caught them in the Red Sea.]

⁷⁷ See the article cited above.

⁷⁸ RashiBereshit 41:43About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and RashbamBereshit 41:43About R. Shemuel b. Meir offer yet another suggestion, turning not to Egyptian but to Aramaic. They propose that the word is composed of two parts אב רך, understanding the latter to be related to the Aramaic רכא, meaning king. Rashbam notes that later Yosef says that Hashem placed him "לְאָב לְפַרְעֹה", matching his title in this verse - אב רך = אב למלך.

⁷⁹ See the discussion in V. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis, Chapters 18-50 (Michigan, 1995): 506-507, and the literature cited there.

⁸⁰ See T. Lambdin, "Egyptian Loan Words in the Old Testament", Journal of the American Oriental Society 73:3 (1953): 146 and B. Noonan, "Egyptian Loanwords as Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus and Wilderness Traditions," Did I Not Bring Israel out of Egypt? ed. J. K. Hoffmeier, A. R. Millard, and G. A. Rendsbur, (Indianna, 2016): 55.

⁸¹ Others, however, offer alternative possibilities, with one opinion in RashiHoshea 13:15About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and MalbimHoshea Beur HaInyan 13:15About R. Meir Leibush Weiser suggesting that the word means "brothers".  This, though, does not appear to be the simple reading of the text.

⁸² See RashiBereshit 41:2About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki who suggests that it is a marsh, RashbamBereshit 41:2About R. Shemuel b. Meir that it is a "place of grass" and R. Avraham b. HaRambamBereshit 41:2About R. Avraham Maimonides and RambanBereshit 41:2About R. Moshe b. Nachman that it refers to the grass itself.

⁸³ See T. Lambdin (ibid, p. 146) and B. Noonan (Ibid, p. 55) and the discussion there.

⁸⁴ See J. Harrell, J. Hoffmeier and K. Williams, "Hebrew Gemstones in the Old Testament: A Lexical, Geological, and Archaeological Analysis," Bulletin for Biblical Research 27:1 (2017): 25. They note that linguistic shift between the Egyptian nun and Hebrew lamed is attested to elsewhere, explaining how the seemingly dissimilar Hebrew word was borrowed from the Egyptian.

⁸⁵ Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer38About Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer associates her with the daughter of Dinah from Shekhem, sharing that she was thrown out of Yaakov's house as the brothers wanted to kill her to protect the honor of the family.  ChizkuniBereshit 41:45About R. Chizkiyah b. Manoach adds that she then hid in thorns, in a סנה, and was therefore known as אסנת.

⁸⁶ See N. Sarna, Understanding Genesis, (New York, 1966): 221 and literature cited there. Sarna notes that though the general form of "she belongs to ---" is prevalent in Egyptian names, this exact name is not attested to in Egyptian sources. See also K.A. Kitchen, "The Joseph Narrative," He Swore an Oath: Biblical Themes from Genesis, eds. R. S. Hess, G. J. Wenham & P. E. Satterthwaite (Michigan, 1994): 77-89, who further questions the etymology, noting that it would be unlikely for a priest of On to name his daughter after the goddess Neith. He suggests that perhaps the name instead stems from the Egyptian Ius-en-at, meaning "she belongs to you".

⁸⁷ For discussion of the various possible meanings of this word, see B. Noonan, "The Meaning of בֹּחן in Isaiah 28,16", ZAW 125:2 (1013), 314-319.

⁸⁸ Cf. the opinions brought by B. Noonan (cited above) that it might refer to a "testing stone", a stone whose function was to test the measurements of other stones. See also R"E of BeaugencyYeshayahu 28:16About R. Eliezer of Beaugency who adopts this meaning, but in a more metaphoric sense, writing that the stone was meant, "לבחנכם אם תהיו ראוים לינצל בה ואם לאו".

⁸⁹ See his article cited above.

⁹⁰ See Daniel 1:20 and 2:2.

⁹¹ This is why they would have been called upon by Paroh to interpret his dreams.

⁹² See T. Lambdin, "Egyptian Loan Words in the Old Testament", Journal of the American Oriental Society 73:3 (1953): 150-151.

⁹³ Lambdin questions the transforming of the "p" in ḥr-tp to a "mem" in חרטום, but nonetheless still think that an Egyptian etymology is likely, even if as of yet not determined.

⁹⁴ See A. S. Yahuda, The Language of the Pentateuch in its Relation to the Egyptian, (London, 1933): 93.

⁹⁵

See, for example, Shemot 4:19 where the word appears in the plural form, suggesting that multiple streams might be so called (though these might all be tributaries of the Nile). See also Daniel 12:5-6 (and compare to Daniel10:4-5), where "הַיְאֹר" appears to refer to the Tigris river.

⁹⁶ See Iyyov 36:30, Iyyov 37:15, and Yeshayahu 26:19. The meaning of each of these, however, might be disputed.

⁹⁷ See T. Lambdin (ibid, p.152).  See also the discussion by J. Harrell, J. Hoffmeier and K. Williams (ibid, p. 22-23).

⁹⁸ See T. Lambdin (ibid, p. 152).

⁹⁹ If so, it might be related to the noun "פּוּךְ" which both Melakhim II 9:30 and Yirmeyahu 4:30 imply was a source of eye make-up, assumed to be bluish. [See Rashi, R"Y Kara and Radak.]

¹⁰⁰ Cf. RashiBereshit 41:45About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and R"Y Bekhor ShorBereshit 41:45About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor who identify the two characters totally.

¹⁰¹ The name has been found on an Egyptian stela dating to the 21st  dynasty.  There are many attestations of other proper names which compound "Padi" (gift) and the name of a god.

¹⁰² See N. Sarna, Understanding Genesis, (New York, 1966): 215 and literature cited there.

¹⁰³ This is a form of metonymy, similar to referring to the king as "the Crown". See T. Lambdin, (ibid, p.153).

¹⁰⁴ See, for example, RashiBereshit 41:45About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra and R"Y Bekhor ShorBereshit 41:45About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor.

¹⁰⁵ ShadalBereshit 14:14Bereshit 41:2Bereshit 41:8Bereshit 41:43Shemot 25:5Devarim 32:43Yeshayahu 2:16Yeshayahu 3:17Yirmeyahu 7:18Yirmeyahu 8:18About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto, however, notes that the word "פַּעְנֵחַ" has no parallel elsewhere in Biblical Hebrew. As such, the understanding of "פַּעְנֵחַ" as "reveal" is based solely on context.

¹⁰⁶ See discussion in A. S. Yahuda, (ibid, p.32-33).

¹⁰⁷ A. Mallon, "Les Hébreux en Egypte", Orientalia 3 (1921): 75 suggests that perhaps Paroh, being sensitive to Yosef's monotheism, left out the name of the Deity as it would have been offensive to Yosef.

¹⁰⁸ See R. Engelbach, "The Egyptian Name of Joseph," The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 10:3/4 (1924): 204–206.

¹⁰⁹ See A. S. Yahuda, (ibid, p.33-34) who offers a different etymology, positing that the name relates to ḏf n tꜢ pw 'nḫ, which would roughly translate as "food, sustenance of this land, is this living one". If so, the name directly relates to Yosef's position as the officer in charge of providing food for the country.
The Septuagint preserves a slightly different version of the name, Ψονθομφανήχ (Psonthom-phanech), which has been understood to be related to Coptic, meaning "savior of the world". [See the discussion in Gesenius.] This is how Jerome renders the name in the Vulgate as well. This interpretation of the name fits the context, as Yosef saved the world from famine. [The Christian preference for this reading might relate to their viewing of Yosef as a prefiguration of Jesus.]

¹¹⁰ See RashbamVayikra 26:1About R. Shemuel b. Meir, Ibn EzraVayikra 26:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra and R"Y Bekhor Shor.Vayikra 26:1About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor

¹¹¹ See RashiVayikra 26:1Yeshayahu 28:16About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki.

¹¹² See T. Lambdin (ibid, p. 154-155) and the literature cited there.

¹¹³ See also the parallel verse in Divrei HaYamim II 9:21.

¹¹⁴ See also RashiMelakhim I 10:22About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki and R. Yosef KaraMelakhim I 10:22About R. Yosef Kara.

¹¹⁵ Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken in the state of Tamil Nadu, India and in Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia.

¹¹⁶ See B. Noonan, "Egyptian Loanwords as Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus and Wilderness Traditions," Did I Not Bring Israel out of Egypt? ed. J. K. Hoffmeier, A. R. Millard, and G. A. Rendsbur, (Indianna, 2016): 48-68.

¹¹⁷ See T. Lambdin (ibid, p. 147-149) and B. Noonan (Ibid, p. 52-56).

¹¹⁸ See the list in B. Noonan, "Egyptian Loanwords as Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus and Wilderness Traditions," Did I Not Bring Israel out of Egypt? ed. J. K. Hoffmeier, A. R. Millard, and G. A. Rendsbur, (Indianna, 2016): 48-68.  See there for other possible loanwords as well.

¹¹⁹ The exact identity of this flower is disputed. For a discussion of various possible identifications, see here.

¹²⁰ See A. S. Yahuda, The Language of the Pentateuch in its Relation to the Egyptian, (London, 1933): 7.

¹²¹ See N. Shupak. “סיפור יוסף: בין אגדה להיסטוריה,” Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies 11 (1993): 17–22.

¹²² See A. S. Yahuda (ibid, p. 30).

¹²³ See N. Shupak (ibid, p. 20)

¹²⁴ See Shadal on Devarim 33:2 regarding the word "אֵשׁ דָּת" and BDB "דת".

¹²⁵ See Esther 1:3 and 6:9, and Daniel 1:3.