Dictionary:Cognates and Loanwords/0
Lexical: Cognates and Loanwords
Akkadian Cognates
Often, when faced with a difficult Biblical word, scholars will turn to cognate languages to aid in deciphering it. Sometimes, too, though there is no dispute about the meaning of a word or phrase, its deeper significance is only apparent in light of its usage in other Ancient Near Eastern texts. Below is a list of terms whose meaning might be elucidated by looking at Akkadian equivalents.
- אַדְמָתוֹ – The phrase "וְכִפֶּר אַדְמָתוֹ עַמּוֹ" in Devarim 32:43 is difficult from a syntactic perspective. Who is the subject of the verb "כִפֶּר" – Hashem, the nation, or the land? Who or what is the object? How do the words "אַדְמָתוֹ" and "עַמּוֹ" relate to each other?
- While Rashi1 suggests that the verse should be read as if written, "וְכִפֶּר אַדְמָתוֹ ועַמּוֹ", that Hashem will make expiation for both the land and people, Ralbag suggests that it be understood as if written "וְכִפֶּר אדמת עַמּוֹ",2 that Hashem will purify the land of His nation. Ibn Ezra offers a third possibility, "וכפר עמו [על] אדמתו",3 that the nation itself will expiate the land.
- Tur Sinai4 has suggested that the word "אַדְמָתוֹ" is related to the Akkadian, "adamaֿtu", used in poetic passages to mean "red blood". Hashem will expiate not the land of His nation (which is not otherwise mentioned in the verse), but their blood that has been spilled. This clause of the verse is thus intrinsically tied to the earlier clause, "דַם עֲבָדָיו יִקּוֹם".
- In contrast to most of the above explanations, Y. Avishur5 suggests a reading that does not entail adding or deleting letters/words from the verse, proposing that the phrase means "וכפר דמעות עמו,"6 similar to the Akkadian, "dimtassa ikkapar". After avenging the nation's blood, Hashem will wipe away (כפר = מחה), the nation's tears.
- אֱלִיל – The noun "אֱלִיל" is generally translated as idol, but the etymology of the word is unclear. Rashi and R"Y Kara suggest that it might come from the word "אַל" meaning nought. In contrast, V. Hurowitz7 and H. Tawil8 propose that it might be related to Akkadian, with Hurowitz connecting it to Enlil, head god of the Sumerian pantheon, and Tawil relating it to the Akkadian "ulalu", meaning worthless. The latter possibility might explain various verses in which the normal translation of idol is less fitting:9
- Yirmeyahu 14:14: "שֶׁקֶר הַנְּבִאִים נִבְּאִים בִּשְׁמִי.. וְלֹא דִבַּרְתִּי אֲלֵיהֶם חֲזוֹן שֶׁקֶר וְקֶסֶם [וֶאֱלִיל] (ואלול)" - Yirmeyahu claims that the visions of false prophets are lies and things of nought.
- Zekharyah 11:17: " הוֹי רֹעִי הָאֱלִיל עֹזְבִי הַצֹּאן" – Zecharyah speaks of worthless shepherds who abandon their sheep.
- Iyyov 13:4: "אַתֶּם טֹפְלֵי שָׁקֶר רֹפְאֵי אֱלִל כֻּלְּכֶם" – Iyyov tells his friends that they are like physicians of no value, for their attempts to comfort are futile.
- Tehillim 96:5, " כִּי כׇּל אֱלֹהֵי הָעַמִּים אֱלִילִים" Though this verse is often understood to mean, "all the nations' gods are idols," a smoother translation might understand "אֱלִיל" here, too, as an adjective: "all the nations' gods are worthless".
- בְּרִית – Though all agree that "בְּרִית" refers to a covenant, the etymology of the word is debated. Some10 have suggested that it comes from the root ברה11 and relates to the shared meal that often accompanied the treaty, while others posit that it might relate to the verb ברא used in Yehoshua 17:15 and Yechezkel 23:47, meaning "to cut".12 H. Tadmor also brings the opinion that the word relates to the Akkadian "biritu" which means bond or tie, or, alternatively to the Akkadian "birit" which means "between" (and might refer to the covenantal ceremony of passing between pieces of a slaughtered animal). To see how each possibility might relate to various aspects of treaty-making, see Treaties in Tanakh and the Ancient Near East.
- דגל – In Akkadian, the verb dagalu means to look upon or gaze, with the noun diglu meaning sight or view.13 This meaning might bear light on Shir HaShirim 2:4, "הֱבִיאַנִי אֶל בֵּית הַיָּיִן וְדִגְלוֹ עָלַי אַהֲבָה", where the standard meaning of דגל as "banner" is somewhat awkward. Applying the Akkadian cognate, however, would render the sentence, "And his gaze upon me was love / loving."14
- דן – In Akkadian "dannutu" relates to strength and can refer to power, harshness, or a fortress. Rabbi Gad Dishi15 has suggested that this meaning might illuminate several verses in Tanakh in which the more common definition of "to judge" or "execute judgement" is less fitting:
- Bereshit 6:3: "לֹא יָדוֹן רוּחִי בָאָדָם לְעֹלָם" – In this verse, Hashem might be saying that He will not strengthen the demigods born from the union of the "sons of God" and "daughters of Adam". He will not allow them an immortal lifespan, as they, too, are partly made of human flesh. As such, they will live no longer than 120 years. See בני הא־להים and בנות האדם for other understandings of the verse and the story as a whole.
- Bereshit 14:14: "וַיִּרְדֹּף עַד דָּן" – It is unclear what location is referred to by the marker "עַד דָּן". Radak suggests that it either refers to the future location of the tribe of Dan and is so called after its future name16 or that there is another place with the same name.17 It is possible, however, that "דָּן" here simply means fortress and the verse is saying that Avraham chased the kings back to their fortifications and then returned home.
- Bereshit 30:6: "וַתֹּאמֶר רָחֵל דָּנַנִּי אֱלֹהִים וְגַם שָׁמַע בְּקֹלִי". It is difficult to understand why Rachel would be saying that Hashem "judged" her at the moment of granting her a child.18 If, however, "דָּנַנִּי" is related to the Akkadian "dunnunu",19 Rachel might simply be thanking Hashem for empowering and strengthening her in granting her wish.
- Devarim 32:36: "כִּי יָדִין י״י עַמּוֹ וְעַל עֲבָדָיו יִתְנֶחָם" – Hashem's judging of the nation in the first clause of the verse appears at odds with the continuation which speaks of Hashem's compassion on the people. As such, many commentators20 understand the verse to mean that Hashem will avenge His nation (i.e. judge their enemies, not them). Alternatively, in light of the Akkadian, it might mean that Hashem will empower the nation. This works well with the end of the verse which explains the necessity of Hashem's intervention: "כִּי יִרְאֶה כִּי אָזְלַת יָד וְאֶפֶס עָצוּר וְעָזוּב". Since the nation has lost its power, Hashem will return it.21
- Zekharyah 3:7: "וְגַם אַתָּה תָּדִין אֶת בֵּיתִי" – This is one of the tasks given to Yehoshua, the high priest in the period of the return to Zion. Rashi and Radak suggest that in these words, Yehoshua is told to oversee/judge the Beit Hamikdash or priests.22 If one applies the Akkadian meaning of strength, however, it is possible that Hashem is telling Yehoshua to back and strengthen the house of Zerubavel, the political leader of the time (alluded to in the next verse, "כִּי הִנְנִי מֵבִיא אֶת עַבְדִּי צֶמַח").23
- יֵשׁ – The word "יש" is commonly understood as a particle relating to ownership or being. V. Hurowitz24 notes that the Akkadian equivalent is "basu", often translated as "there is" but also meaning "to exist". This verb has a noun form, "busu", which means possessions or valuables. As such, he suggests that it is possible that the Hebrew "יש" might similarly function as both a noun and verb. This understanding might elucidate the meaning of several verses:
- Mishlei 8:21: "לְהַנְחִיל אֹהֲבַי יֵשׁ וְאֹצְרֹתֵיהֶם אֲמַלֵּא" – Commentators who read "יֵשׁ" as a verb are forced to posit that the verse is assuming an unspoken noun. Thus, for example, Radak explains, "יש לי מתנה טובה להנחיל אותה לאוהבי".25 Hurowitz, instead, explains that the the word "יֵשׁ" is parallel to "אוצרות", and functions here as a noun, meaning valuables.
- Mishlei 13:23: רׇב אֹכֶל נִיר רָאשִׁים וְיֵשׁ נִסְפֶּה בְּלֹא מִשְׁפָּט – Hurowitz suggests that perhaps here, too, "יֵשׁ" should be defined as wealth. If so, the verse might be highlighting the changing fortunes of people. The work of even the poor might produce much food, while a person's wealth might dissipate.26
- כַּוָּנִים – This word appears in both Yirmeyahu 7:18 and 44:1927 and, due to the context of idolatry in both verses, is understood by Radak and Shadal to refer to some type of food/cake offering.28 This meaning is supported by the Akkadian cognate, kamaֿnu, which refers to sweet cakes which were used in the worship of Ishtar.29 This fits well with the full phrase "לַעֲשׂוֹת כַּוָּנִים לִמְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם" as Ishtar is also known as "queen of the heavens" (מְלֶכֶת = מַלְכַּת).30 [Ishtar is further associated with the star Venus so even if one takes a more simple reading of "מְלֶכֶת הַשָּׁמַיִם", it might refer to her specifically.]
- למד – This root generally refers to learning or teaching. The verb appears in Shir HaShirim 8:2, "אֶנְהָגְךָ אֲבִיאֲךָ אֶל בֵּית אִמִּי תְּלַמְּדֵנִי" where it is commonly understood within the metaphoric understanding of the book to refer to instruction in Torah and mitzvot.31 It is less clear, though, what it would mean according to the simple sense of the verse. S.M. Paul32 notes that in Akkadian, lamadu can refer to sexual knowledge. [He compares it to the root "ידע" (and the Akkadian equivalent idu) which can also connote both intellectual and sexual knowledge, noting the relationship between learning/teaching (למד) and knowing (ידע).] Accordingly, the beloved would be speaking of her hopes to engage in relations with her lover.
- מַבְלִיגִיתִי – This word is a hapax legomenon, appearing only in Yirmeyahu 8:18: "מַבְלִיגִיתִי עֲלֵי יָגוֹן עָלַי לִבִּי דַוָּי". Many commentators33 connect it to the verb "בלג", and from context, understand it to be a noun meaning strength or restraint.34 In contrast, Y. Avishur35 suggests that it is the feminine form of "מבליג" which is parallel to the Akkadian balaggu, referring to either a musical instrument or song. The verse would mean "and my instrument turned for me into grief", similar to Iyyov 30:31, "וַיְהִי לְאֵבֶל כִּנֹּרִי".
- מֵרֵעֵהוּ – The root "מרע" appears in several places in Tanakh, in Bereshit 26:26,36 Shofetim 14-15, Shemuel II 3:8 and Mishlei 19:7. In each case, commentators define it as a friend or companion. The context of Bereshit 26, however, might make one question whether this is the most fitting translation there as well. The verses speak of the covenant between Avimelekh and Yitzchak, stating "וַאֲבִימֶלֶךְ הָלַךְ אֵלָיו מִגְּרָר וַאֲחֻזַּת מֵרֵעֵהוּ וּפִיכֹל שַׂר צְבָאוֹ". Why would Avimelekh bring both his military commander and a mere "friend" to negotiate? V. Hurowitz37 suggests that perhaps "מֵרֵעֵהוּ" in this verse is equivalent to the Akkadian "merhu", meaning שר הרועים. Avimelekh brought two important officers with him, not one of his friends.38
- נהה – In both Yechezkel 32:8 and Mikhah 2:4, this root means wail or lament.39 However, this definition is more difficult to apply to Shemuel I 7:2, "וַיִּנָּהוּ כׇּל בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל אַחֲרֵי י״י". What would it mean that the nation "lamented after Hashem"? Radak suggests that the verse might mean that the nation cried as they repented of their ways.40 M. Weinfeld41 offers a different explanation in light of Akkadian, suggesting that "נהה" is related to the Akkadian ne'u, meaning "to turn to". The verse states simply that the nation turned back to Hashem.
- נְחֹשֶׁת – Throughout Tanakh, "נְחֹשֶׁת" means copper, yet this meaning is difficult in Yechezkel 16:36: "יַעַן הִשָּׁפֵךְ נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ וַתִּגָּלֶה עֶרְוָתֵךְ". From context, most commentators understand the phrase "הִשָּׁפֵךְ נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" to be parallel to "וַתִּגָּלֶה עֶרְוָתֵךְ." Thus, Rashi and Radak suggest that "נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" means the women's edge or bottom, pointing as evidence to the verse "וְחָרָה נְחֻשְׁתָּהּ" (Yechezkel 24:11) and the Mishnaic phrase42 "נחשתו של תנור" which speak of the bottom of a vessel.43 I. Gluska44 agrees that the two halves of the verse are parallel, but suggests that the word "נְחֻשְׁתֵּךְ" should be understood in light of its Akkadain cognate, nahsati/u, meaning a women's menstrual flow.
- סֻלָּם – Though often translated as "ladder,"45 the word סֻלָּם is actually a hapax legomenon (appearing only in Bereshit 28:12) whose exact meaning is unknown. The word might stem from the Hebrew root סלל which relates to a path or ramp, or alternatively to the Akkadian "simmiltu" which means a stairway. The latter possibility has led many scholars to suggest that what Yaakov saw in his dream was actually a ziqqurat, a stepped Mesopotamian temple which was believed to connect heaven and earth.46
- פֹּת – Yirmeyahu 3:17 reads, "וְשִׂפַּח אֲדֹנָי קׇדְקֹד בְּנוֹת צִיּוֹן וַי״י פׇּתְהֵן יְעָרֶה". The meaning of the word "פׇּתְהֵן" is unclear. Ibn Ezra47 and Radak suggests that it refers to a woman's private parts, which Hashem is to unveil.48 Ibn Ezra and Shadal also bring the alternative possibility that the word פֹּת is parallel to "קׇדְקֹד", with Ibn Ezra relating it the word "פאה" (head of hair) and Shadal to the Aramaic "אפותא," meaning forehead. A closer cognate might be the Akkadian "putu", also meaning forehead.49
- צִיצִת – The word צִיצִת appears in both Bemidbar 15:38-39, "וְעָשׂוּ לָהֶם צִיצִת עַל כַּנְפֵי בִגְדֵיהֶם" and Yechezkel 8:3, "וַיִּקָּחֵנִי בְּצִיצִת רֹאשִׁי" and has been understood either to refer to a tassel50 or to be related to the verb "צוץ", meaning to gaze.51 It is also possible that the word relates to the Akkadian, sissiktu, meaning fringe or hem.52 This connection might shed light on the role and symbolism behind the mitzvah of tzitzit:
- In Akkadian, tying or cutting "sissiktu" plays a role in legal contexts, where knotting a hem symbolizes marriage (or other agreements) and cutting it marked divorce.53 This might suggest that the knotted strings at the end of tzitzit symbolize the "marriage" of Hashem and Israel.
- Hems were also a means of personal identification and impressing them onto a clay tablet could serve as a seal and signature, marking ownership.54 This matches R"Y Bekhor Shor's understanding of the commandment, "כי הציצית כמו חותם שבכסותו, שעושין לעבד סימן שהוא משועבד לרבו."
- S. M. Paul55 further notes that in Akkadian texts, grasping a hem of a garment (sissikta sabatu) often symbolizes submission and a show of allegiance to the god / king whose garment was grasped. This opens the possibility that in Tanakh, too, the action holds the same connotation and might bear on various episodes in Tanakh which speak of the grasping of cloak hems:
- Shemuel I 15:27: "וַיִּסֹּב שְׁמוּאֵל לָלֶכֶת וַיַּחֲזֵק בִּכְנַף מְעִילוֹ וַיִּקָּרַע" – Many question whether it is Shaul or Shemuel who holds and tears the cloak in this verse. In light of the context of supplication and submission in Akkadian texts, R. Brauner56 concludes that in this verse it must be Shaul holding onto Shemuel's cloak, in a show of subservience after having admitted to his wrongdoing.57
- Shemuel I 24:4-5: "וַיִּכְרֹת אֶת כְּנַף הַמְּעִיל אֲשֶׁר לְשָׁאוּל בַּלָּט" – If grasping a corner is a sign of allegiance, it is possible that David's cutting off the hem of Shaul's garment in this verse was symbolic of his cutting of ties and loyalty to the king (representing a "divorce" from him).
- Zekharyah 8:23 – The chapter describes how in the future many foreigners will turn to God and "יַחֲזִיקוּ עֲשָׂרָה אֲנָשִׁים מִכֹּל לְשֹׁנוֹת הַגּוֹיִם וְהֶחֱזִיקוּ בִּכְנַף אִישׁ יְהוּדִי לֵאמֹר נֵלְכָה עִמָּכֶם". In light of the Akkadian, the verse appears to be stating that the foreigners will show their allegiance to the nation of Israel.58
Egyptian
It has been suggested that several words in Tanakh, especially rare words which appear primarily within narratives that relate to Egypt, might be loanwords from Egyptian. As such, looking to the Egyptian equivalents might shed light on their meaning. Additionally, even in cases where a word might not be Egyptian in origin, recognizing the Egyptian backdrop and usage of certain phrases, might further elucidate their meaning.
Egyptian Loanwords
- אַבְרֵךְ – This word appears but once in Tanakh, in Bereshit 41:43, which describes how, after Yosef's appointment as second in command, he rode in a chariot and the people called before him: "אַבְרֵךְ". Ibn Ezra connects the word "אַבְרֵךְ" to the root "ברך", suggesting that all cried before Yosef, "I will kneel and bow". Shadal, quoting Gesenius, reaches a similar conclusion, but by suggesting that the proclamation is a loanword from Egyptian meaning to bow one's head.59 More modern scholars have proposed other Egyptian connections suggesting that the word might relate to ı͗ b-r.k , meaning "attention!" or i.brk, meaning "do homage".60
- אַחְלָמָה – The identity of this stone from the Choshen (mentioned in Shemot 28:19 and Shemot 39:12) is debated. Some relate it to the Egyptian ḫnm(t),61 understood to be a stone with a reddish-orange hue, such as red jasper. For other possible identifications and further discussion, see Stones of the Choshen.
- בֹּחַן62 – Yeshayahu 28:16 speaks of an "אֶבֶן בֹּחַן" which will be placed as a foundation in Tzion. The word "בֹּחַן" is a hapax legomenon whose meaning is debated. Rashi and Radak relate it to the word "בַחַן" in Yeshayahu 32:14 (אַרְמוֹן נֻטָּשׁ הֲמוֹן עִיר עֻזָּב עֹפֶל וָבַחַן), a fortress or watchtower, suggesting that an "אֶבֶן בֹּחַן" is a particularly strong or massive rock. Ibn Kaspi, in contrast, assumes "בֹּחַן" relates to the verb "בחן", and refers to a tried and tested stone.63 B. Noonan64 raises a third possibility, that "בֹּחַן' is borrowed from the Egyptian bḫn, meaning greywacke, a type of sandstone used heavily in construction.
- לֶשֶׁם – The identity of this stone from the Choshen is disputed. T. Lambdin65 suggest that the Hebrew לשם might be related to the Egyptian nšm(t), identified by some as the bluish-green feldspar (amazonite). See Stones of the Choshen for more.
- נֹפֶךְ –This stone is mentioned with regards to the Choshen (Shemot 28:18 and Shemot 39:11), the stones of Gan Eden (Yechezkel 28:13), and also in Yechezkel 27:16, in the context of the merchandise of Aram. It is not clear, however, to which stone is referred. T. Lambdin66 suggests that "נֹפֶךְ" might relate to the Egyptian mfkt, referring to a greenish-blue stone such as turquoise or perhaps malachite.67 For discussion, see Stones of the Choshen.
- צׇפְנַת פַּעְנֵחַ – In Bereshit 41:45, Yosef is given a new name by Paroh, "צׇפְנַת פַּעְנֵחַ". Commentators debate whether this is a Hebrew translation of the original Egyptian name or if Tanakh is preserving the Egyptian itself. Assuming the former, many68 follow Onkelos in understanding the name to mean "revealer of mysteries," assuming that "צׇפְנַת" relates to the root "צפן," to hide.69 Others look to the Egyptian, with Steindorf70 suggesting that it relates to D̲(d)-pnt(r)-ĕf-ʿnḫ and means "the god speaks and he lives". A. S. Yahuda71 disagrees, positing that it relates to ḏf n tꜢ pw 'nḫ, which would roughly translate as "food, sustenance of this land, is this living one". If so, the name directly relates to Yosef's position as the officer in charge of providing food for the country.72
- שְׂכִיּוֹת – This word appears but once in Tanakh, in Yeshayahu 2:16, "וְעַל כׇּל אֳנִיּוֹת תַּרְשִׁישׁ וְעַל כׇּל שְׂכִיּוֹת הַחֶמְדָּה". Many commentators connect it to the noun "מַשְׂכִּית", a word whose meaning is also disputed and is understood by some73 to refer to images (from the root ש/סכה, to see), and by others74 to a stone floor covering (from the root ש/סכך). When applied to Yeshayahu, the verse might speak of beautiful images (see Radak), or perhaps to paved palaces (see Rashi and Shadal). T. Lambdin,75 however, suggests that שְׂכִיּוֹת is actually a loanword from the Egyptian "skty" which means boat. If so, the two halves of the verse are parallel.
- תַּחַשׁ76 – This word appears almost exclusively in the context of the coverings of the Mishkan and its vessels, where it is usually accompanies the word "עוֹר", suggesting that it is related to animal skins.77 It appears once more, in Yechezkel 16:10, "וָאֶנְעֲלֵךְ תָּחַשׁ".
- Color –The Septuagint and Aramaic Targumim suggest that it is a color,78 supported by the context of many of the verses in which it appears where it is associated with other colored coverings. S. Ahituv and H. Tadmor79 agree, suggesting that the word is cognate with the Akkadian dušû or duḫšû, a color term.
- Hide – In contrast, many medieval commentators suggest that it refers to the hide of an animal (and/or the animal itself).80 B. Noonan81 supports this meaning, suggesting that תחש might be related to the Egyptian ṯḥs, a type of Egyptian leather.
- תֻּכִּי – This word appears in the context of Shelomo's imports from his navy in Tarshish mentioned in Melakhim I 10:22.82 Targum Yonatan83 translates the word as "טַוָסִין" or peacocks. If so, it might be related to the Tamil,84 tōkai, referring to the plume of a peacock. Others suggest that it might be a loanword from Egyptian, tꜢ -ky.t, meaning an African ape.85
Egyptian Terminology
- נשק – In Bereshit 41:40, Paroh tells Yosef that he will be in charge of his house, and "וְעַל פִּיךָ יִשַּׁק כׇּל עַמִּי". As the common translation of "kiss" does not seem applicable, commentators look for alternative translations. Rashi suggests that the word means to provide, referencing Bereshit 15:2 "בֶן מֶשֶׁק בֵּיתִי", while Rashbam suggests that it relates to "נשק" (ammunition), and that Paroh was speaking of a military role to be played by Yosef. A. S. Yahuda86 suggests that, in light of Egyptian terminology, one may actually maintain the prevalent understanding of "יִשַּׁק" as kiss, pointing to several Egyptian texts in which the expression to "kiss the food" is used metaphorically in ceremonial speech to refer to feeding.
- אָב לְפַרְעֹה – In Bereshit 45:8, Yosef tells his brothers that he was placed as an "אָב לְפַרְעֹה". A. S. Yahuda suggests that this is a Hebrew translation of a known Egyptian title. In Egypt the word itf, father, was a priestly title borne by various officers, including viziers. As Paroh was considered a god, those who served him could be given the designation "father" or priest.