Distinguishing Between True and False Prophets/2

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Distinguishing Between True and False Prophets

Exegetical Approaches

THIS TOPIC HAS NOT YET UNDERGONE EDITORIAL REVIEW

Overview

When attempting to define the test that distinguishes fraudulent and true prophets, commentators struggle both to make sense of seemingly contradictory sources and to balance these with their beliefs regarding the power of repentance to overturn decrees and the question of whether Hashem changes His mind. To do so, most commentators focus on one central text, while reinterpreting the others.

Thus, R. Yosef Bekhor Shor learns from Yirmeyahu 18 that a person's deeds can affect a prophecy's materialization, and consequently asserts that the test must be related instead to the performance of miracles or the fulfillment of neutral predictions. Rambam and his school, instead, concentrate on Yirmeyahu 28 leading them to distinguish between positive and negative prophecies. Only the latter can be overturned, allowing positive prophecies to be a fair arbiter of a prophet's veracity. Finally, a third approach learns from Devarim's inclusive language that the test can be via any type of prophecy. To make sense of the other verses as well, R. Crescas limits the test to overt demonstrations of prophetic status, while Ibn Kaspi limits it to prophecies which are explicitly conditional.

Through Wonders or Neutral Prophecies

A prophet's veracity is tested through the performance of miracles or foretelling of future events that are not conditional on people's behavior. If the wonders do not occur or the prophecies do not come true, the prophet is not an authentic messenger of Hashem.

Must a prophecy come true?
  • All are subject to change – According to R. Yosef Bekhor Shor and Abarbanel, all prophecies are subject to change since a person's actions can affect and overturn both positive and negative predictions.2 As such, only signs or neutral predictions which are not affected by people's actions can be used to test a prophet.
  • Most are subject to change – Ralbag agrees that most prophecies can change in accord with a person's deeds,3 but asserts that positive prophecies which are not subject to Hashem's personal providence, but instead to astronomical signs, will rarely change.4 Thus, such positive prophecies can also be used to test a prophet.5
Understanding Yirmeyahu 18 – These commentators look to this passage as support for their claims, as the verses clearly state that Hashem can change His decrees in both directions.
Yirmeyahu and Chananyah – These verses are difficult for this position, as they seem to distinguish between positive and negative prophecies.
  • This is what leads Ralbag to assert that Yirmeyahu is speaking of a particular type of positive prophecy, one which is limited in scope and duration, subject to the laws of the heavenly spheres and not open to change.6
  • Alternatively, one might suggest that Yirmeyahu is contrasting the majority of prophets who bear tidings of doom, with Chananyah who was predicting peace, telling him that as he is the exception, the onus of proof is on him.
Identifying a true prophet
  • Miracles – Abarbanel posits that the test of a true prophet is the inverse of that for a false prophet. He can be identified through the miraculous signs that he performs, or through the fulfillment of neutral predictions.7 As proof, he points to Moshe's performing signs before the Israelites,8 Eliyahu bringing forth fire on Mt. Carmel, and Shemuel verifying Shaul's appointment as king through predicting what would happen to him en route home.
  • No test needed – Alternatively, Abarbanel suggests that perhaps, in general, no proof is needed, since anyone who prophesies to uproot a mitzvah or to worship idolatry is obviously problematic, whereas any righteous person who chastises the people to do Hashem's bidding should be listened to. A person's words and deeds alone can testify to his veracity.9 Only in cases where a prophet is called upon to give a one time commandment against the Torah (הוראת שעה) or when he is being actively contradicted by a false prophet is the test necessary.
Signs of false prophets in Devarim 13 – These verses are difficult for this position as they suggest that even a false prophet can perform signs and wonders, which would render these useless as a litmus test.
  • Ralbag asserts that it should be clear to all that such signs do not stem from Hashem, and are rather the result of magical craft or trickery, as they are accompanied by a directive to worship idolatry.10 As such, it should be easy to distinguish the real from the fake.
  • Alternatively, this position might agree with R. Akiva in the SifreDevarim 84About Sifre who maintains that the verses are referring to a sign done by a true prophet who later strayed and became an idolater.
‏"אֲשֶׁר יְדַבֵּר הַנָּבִיא בְּשֵׁם ה'"‏ – This position does not limit the "words spoken by the prophet" to a prediction of future events, but also includes in it the performing of signs and wonders and the revealing of unknown facts regarding the present.

Through Positive Prophecies Only

A prophet is determined to be spurious only if he forecasts a good development which does not come true. In contrast, the foretelling of a negative event which does not materialize indicates nothing about the prophet's veracity.

Must a prophecy come true? These commentators maintain that negative prophecies need not be fulfilled, since a person's repentance can avert an evil decree.11 All positive, prophecies, on the other hand, regardless of a person's deeds, do have to come true.12
Understanding Yirmeyahu 18 – This position encounters difficulty from the verses in Yirmeyahu 18 which suggest that positive prophecies, too, can be overturned (and as such, would not be a good yardstick to determine false prophecy).
  • Good given and removed – Radak explains that Yirmeyahu is referring to removing a reward that was already given to someone, rather than preventing one from receiving it in the first place. Thus, if a person was promised good but then no longer deserved it, Hashem nonetheless keeps His promise, but due to the changed circumstances, Hashem will subsequently undo the good.13
  • Thought versus statement – R. Crescas suggests that this approach might differentiate between Hashem's internal thoughts (which can change even from good to bad) and explicit statements (which can only change from bad to good). Yirmeyahu, thus, might be referring only to a case where Hashem thought, but never promised via a prophet, to bring some good. In such a case, Hashem might change His mind; but had He already given over an explicit prophecy for good, He would not.14
Yirmeyahu and Chananyah – These commentators point to Yirmyehua's words to Chananyah as proof of their position.15 They understand that Yirmeyahu is telling Chananyah that only through the fulfillment of his prophecies for peace can it be proven that he is a true or false prophet. Other prophets who have spoken of upcoming tragedies, in contrast, cannot be tested through the fulfillment of their words or lack thereof.16
Identifying a true prophet
  • Unknown – R. D"Z Hoffmann asserts that the verses in Devarim do not provide enough information for the reader to know how to ascertain who is a true prophet17 and that the fulfillment of a positive prophecy alone would not suffice.
  • Consistent fulfillment of prophecies – Rambam, in contrast, maintains that a person whose positive prophecies continuously come true, in all their details,18 is considered a true prophet.19 He adds that a person who performs a sign or wonder, and has proven himself worthy of prophecy through his deeds and intellect, should also be listened to as a prophet, even though it is possible that such a sign could have been performed by a layperson.
False prophets in Devarim 13 – R. D"Z Hoffmann asserts that Devarim 13's assumption that false prophets can perform certain signs proves that these do not suffice to render someone a true prophet. Though Rambam does not totally reject using such wonders to validate a prophecy, these verses lead him to add the requirement that one must also look at the character of the prophet performing the sign.
‏"אֲשֶׁר יְדַבֵּר הַנָּבִיא בְּשֵׁם ה"‏ – According to this position, the "words spoken by the prophet" are limited in scope and refers only to the positive prophecies that are uttered.20

Through Both Positive and Negative Prophecies

A prophet is declared false if his prophecies, whether foretelling good or bad, are not fulfilled. The commentators, though, limit the circumstances in which such prophecies can be tested:

Only During a Test of Prophetic Status

A prophet's validity can only be determined when giving a prophecy whose whole purpose is to demonstrate that the prophet is speaking in the name of Hashem. During such a demonstration, any prophecy which does not come to fruition will indicate that the speaker is a false prophet. If other prophecies are not fulfilled, though, they do not incriminate the prophet.

Must a prophecy come true? – Both positive and negative prophecies can be overturned21 since a change in behavior can result in a change of decree. Only prophecies which are part of a test to prove the status of a prophet will always come true.22 Thus, it is only through these that a prophet can be declared true/false.
Understanding Yirmeyahu 18 – R. Crescas understands these verses according to their simple sense, that prophecies can be overturned in the face of repentance or sin.
Yirmeyahu and Chananyah – R. Crescas understands Yirmeyahu's words to be in jest. Yirmeyahu is mocking Chananyah, telling him that when his prophecy comes true he will he be known as a true prophet, knowing all the while that this will never happen. The statement, thus, does not differentiate between positive and negative prophecies, nor suggest that the latter must come true.23
Identifying a true prophet – When a prophet makes a prediction with the stated purpose of verifying his prophetic status, and that prediction proves true, his status is confirmed.24
Signs of false prophets in Devarim 13 – R. Crescas does not address the issue, but might suggest that signs are not a good test of prophetic status since false prophets can also perform them.

Only if the Prophecy is Explicitly Conditional

If a prophecy includes an explicit qualification, the conditions of which are met, but nonetheless the prophecy is not fulfilled, the prophet is considered false. If, on the other hand, the prophecy was stated without any conditions, nothing can be determined.

Must a prophecy come true? Ibn Kaspi claims that all prophecies must come true, since God's will is unchanging.25 He asserts that any verse which states that Hashem regretted an action or the like is referring to the erroneous human perception of that action.26 This mistake occurs because many prophecies are actually conditional on a person's behavior, even if the prophet does not state so explicitly. Thus, if a certain prediction does not unfold as stated, a person might think that Hashem changed his initial decree, when in reality it had been conditional all along and the circumstances changed.27 Due to this inability on the part of humans to distinguish between decrees which Hashem intends to be final and those which are conditional, Ibn Kaspi asserts that only in cases where the condition is actually stated, can a prophecy be used to test prophetic status.
Understanding Yirmeyahu 18 – According to Ibn Kaspi these verses refer to conditional predictions (even if unstated). As such, when a person changes his ways the prediction is not fulfilled. Yirmeyahu does not mean, though, that Hashem changed His mind, for from the beginning He had meant the decree to be contingent on a person's deeds.
Yirmeyahu and Chananyah – According to Ibn Kaspi, Yirmeyahu is simply telling Chananyah that, since the two prophets are giving opposite predictions, one for destruction and one for peace, the only way that the nation will know who is a true prophet will be when the prophecy is fulfilled.28
Identifying a true prophet – The test for true and false prophets is the same. Just as a false prophet is identified by the lack of fulfillment of his words, a true prophet is marked by the fulfillment thereof.
Signs of false prophets in Devarim 13 – As above, Ibn Kaspi might also suggest that a prophet is not identified by his abilities to bring wonders since even false prophets appear to bring such signs.
‏"אֲשֶׁר יְדַבֵּר הַנָּבִיא בְּשֵׁם ה'"‏ – Ibn Kaspi attempts to prove from this inclusive formulation that any type of prophecy uttered by the prophet can be used as a test. If the verse meant to limit the cases to only those in which the content was positive, it should have stated so explicitly.29