Moshe/0

Moshe – Overview

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Unique Traits

Miracles

The concluding verses of Torah suggest that no other prophet compares to Moshe, not only in his prophetic prowess, but also in all of the signs and wonders he wrought. What, though, was so exceptional about Moshe's miracle-making? Did not other prophets perform similar feats?¹ [See Moshe's Epitaph – Signs and Wonders and Miracles for full discussion.]

• Abundance – RambanDevarim 34:10-12About R. Moshe b. Nachman, RalbagDevarim 34:10-12About R. Levi b. Gershom, and ShadalDevarim 34:10-12About R. Shemuel David Luzzatto assert that Moshe's miracles were unparalleled due to their sheer numbers, duration, and/or the area which they affected.
• Wide audience – R"Y Bekhor ShorDevarim 34:12About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor and RambamMoreh Nevukhim 2:35About R. Moshe b. Maimon suggest, instead, that Moshe's wonders surpassed those of others because they were viewed by a wider audience. While most prophets performed miracles for individuals or a small portion of the nation, Moshe's were known to all of the Children of Israel as well as the surrounding nations.
• Instantaneous – AbarbanelDevarim 34:11About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel explains that in contrast to other prophets, Moshe could bring miracles without needing to first pray. Moshe's face to face connection enabled a direct hotline to Hashem and instantaneous implementation.
• Not unique – SefornoDevarim 34:11-12About R. Ovadyah Seforno uniquely suggests that the verse is saying only that Moshe's prophetic powers were singular, but not that his miracle making was superior to others.

Sense of Justice

See Tzeror HaMor Tzeror HaMor Shemot 2:11About R. Avraham Saba (Tzeror HaMor)who points to the fact that Moshe saved not just his fellow Israelites from injustice but also unknown Midianite women as proof that Moshe was driven by a sense of justice and mercy and not just kinship.  It was this trait, he suggests, that merited Moshe to be the leader of Israel.

Humility

• "מִי אָנֹכִי כִּי אֵלֵךְ אֶל פַּרְעֹה" (Shemot 3:11) – Is Moshe's hesitation to accept Hashem's mission an expression of modesty, fear, or something else?
• Modesty – RashiShemot 3:11About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, R"Y Bekhor ShorShemot 3:11About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor, RalbagShemot Beur HaMilot 3:11Shemot Toalot 2:5Shemot Toalot 3:11Shemot Toalot 18:14-15Vayikra Toalot 10About R. Levi b. Gershom, and R. HirschShemot 3:11About R. Samson Raphael Hirsch all see in Moshe's initial refusal evidence of Moshe's humility.  He truly believed that he was not worthy of the mission.
• Fear / insecurity – Lekach Tov Shemot 3:11About R. Toviah b. Eliezerand RambanShemot 3:12About R. Moshe b. Nachman assert that Moshe feared that Paroh would kill him, while RalbagShemot Beur HaMilot 3:11Shemot Toalot 2:5Shemot Toalot 3:11Shemot Toalot 18:14-15Vayikra Toalot 10About R. Levi b. Gershom posits that Moshe lacked confidence due to his speech impediment.
• Lack of Concern – It is also possible that Moshe's hesitation stemmed from a lack of connection to both Hashem and the Israelite nation.  Having grown up in the palace, he might not have had much knowledge of his Israelite roots and its belief system prior to Hashem's revelation to him. [See the discussions below about Moshe's upbringing and religious Identity.]
• "וְהָאִישׁ מֹשֶׁה עָנָו מְאֹד" (Bemidbar 12:3) –

Possible Flaws

Misunderstanding Hashem

Commentators disagree as to whether it is legitimate to maintain that Moshe could have ever misunderstood Hashem. After all, if a prophet can make a mistake and misinterpret Hashem's words, how can he be trusted to correctly transmit Hashem's messages?

• Moshe could have misunderstood Hashem – Several sources assert that it is possible that, on occasion, Moshe erred in understanding Hashem's speech, causing him to question Hashem's actions:²
• Korach's rebellion – Both R. ChananelCited by Ramban Bemidbar 16:21About R. Chananel b. Chushiel³ and SefornoBemidbar 14:12,13,20Bemidbar 16:22,24,26About R. Ovadyah Seforno suggest that Moshe misunderstood Hashem's statement "הִבָּדְלוּ מִתּוֹךְ הָעֵדָה הַזֹּאת וַאֲכַלֶּה אֹתָם" (Bemidbar 16:21) to mean that Hashem intended to wipe out the entire nation, when Hashem really was referring only to the congregation of Korach.  This led Moshe to question Hashem's seeming injustice in collectively punishing the innocent.⁴ See Dialogue with the Divine During Korach's Rebellion for discussion and additional sources.
• The spies – Seforno suggests that Moshe similarly misunderstood Hashem in the aftermath of the spies' report. When Hashem said, "אַכֶּנּוּ בַדֶּבֶר" (Bemidbar 14:12), he thought that Hashem planned to exterminate the nation all at once.⁵ Hashem, though, had really meant that he planned to destroy the nation slowly, over forty years in the Wilderness. It was this misunderstanding which led Moshe to question, "what will the nations say."
• Moshe could not have misunderstood Hashem –  R. Mubashir HaLeviCritique of the Writings of R. Saadia Gaon (p. 109)About R. Mubashir HaLevi,⁶ and RambanBemidbar 16:21About R. Moshe Nachmanides⁷ vehemently argue against the possibility that Moshe could err in understanding Hashem.⁸

Lack in Leadership

• Administrative Shortcomings – Some exegetes suggest that Moshe exhibited certain weaknesses as an administrator, while others think that saying so borders on the blasphemous:
• Yitro's Advice (Shemot 18) – When Yitro sees the nation standing online to await Moshe's judgment, he suggests that Moshe delegate some of his responsibilities to lighten the load. Yitro's advice seems like such an obvious and simple solution that one cannot help but wonder: How could it be that Moshe, the greatest of all men and in possession of a direct line to Hashem, needed Yitro's help to figure this out?
• RalbagShemot Toalot 18:14-15About R. Levi b. Gershom suggests that due to Moshe's closeness to Hashem, he was indeed deficient in civic leadership.
• AbarbanelShemot 18About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel strongly disagrees, claiming that it is impossible that Moshe was flawed in this regard.

• Lack of initiative? Though many suggest that Moshe's sin at Mei Merivah in Bemidbar 20 related to the realm of man and God, others suggest that the problem was one of faulty leadership, specifically Moshe's lack of initiative.
• See, for instance, Minchah BelulahBemidbar 20:12About R. Avraham Porto who asserts that in "fleeing" to the Tent of Meeting, Moshe betrayed a fear of the nation and an inability to act and rebuke them on his own.
• Others, though, see in this very same action a positive act.  According to them, prophetic greatness lies in strict obedience to Hashem's word.  A prophet should not act on his own, but must always consult with Hashem and follow Hashem's commands. For further discussion, see Prophetic Actions Without Explicit Divine Sanction.

• Misunderstanding the nation? –  Commentators raise the possibility that in certain instances there might have been a communication gap between Moshe and the people:
• Petition of the Two and a Half Tribes – In this story, Moshe initially responds negatively to the request to settle the eastern bank of the Jordan, chastising the tribes for leaving the burden of fighting to the rest of the nation (Bemidbar 32).  Immediately thereafter, Reuven and Gad express their willingness not just to fight, but even to lead the nation in battle, whereupon Moshe agrees to their original demands. What leads to the about-face both on the part of the tribes and on the part of Moshe? Did the tribes change their stance only due to Moshe's condemnation, or had they always planned to take part in the Conquest?  Might Moshe have misunderstood their intent?
• Moshe misjudges – AbarbanelBemidbar 32About R. Yitzchak Abarbanel maintains that Moshe misunderstood the tribes' request and wrongly assumed that they did not want to participate in the Canaanite campaign when they had meant to all along.⁹
• Moshe judges correctly – Akeidat YitzchakBemidbar Peirush 32About R. Yitzchak Arama, in contrast, justifies Moshe's angry reaction, opining that Moshe correctly read the tribes' petition and that it really was problematic both on the interpersonal level,¹⁰ and in relation to Hashem.¹¹ In face of Moshe's anger, the tribes revise their proposition and only then does Moshe agree.

Sins

In several places in Torah, commentators question Moshe's behavior and suggest that he might have sinned, even if this is not explicit in the text:

•  Moshe's Killing of the Egyptian (Shemot 2) - Many laud Moshe for killing the Egyptian taskmaster and view him as championing the cause of justice. Others, though, question whether his response was not overly harsh and if Moshe was justified in taking the law into his own hands:
• Justified – The majority of commentators justify Moshe's actions by suggesting either that in killing the taskmaster Moshe was actively saving a life (Shemot Rabbah1:28About Shemot Rabbah) or that the Egyptian was guilty of a capital crime, having committed adultery with the slain Hebrew's wife (TanchumaShemot 9About the Tanchuma). R. D"Z HoffmanShemot 2:12About R. David Zvi Hoffmann, instead, argues that the trampling of human rights in Egypt was so massive that legal norms did not apply.
• Unjustified – Midrash Petirat Moshe[Otzar HaMidrashim (Eisenstein, p. 363)]About Midrash Petirat Moshe finds Moshe's deed blameworthy and suggests that he was even punished as a result.¹²
• Unintentional – R. Saadia GaonMishlei 17:19About R. Saadia Gaon charts a middle ground, suggesting that Moshe's action was indeed problematic, but unintentional.  He had meant only to harm the Egyptian, not to kill him.

• Moshe at the Malon (Shemot 4) – Hashem's attempt to kill Moshe (or perhaps his son) during the incident at the inn implies that there had been some serious transgression.  Yet, there is no explicit mention of any wrongdoing in the text.  Moreover, attributing a crime to Moshe implies that Hashem had chosen an unworthy messenger! How, then, is the story to be understood?  Is it a tale of sin and punishment or something else?
• Sinned in not circumcising his son – Many Tannaitic sources. working backwards from the circumcision at the story's conclusion, suggest that Moshe must have been lax in circumcising his son. While Yerushalmi NedarimNedarim 3:9About Yerushalmi Nedarim and Shemot Rabbah5:8About Shemot Rabbah attempt to minimize Moshe's guilt by explaining that there was merely a slight delay due to the journey, R. Elazar HaModai18:3About Mekhilta DeRabbi Yishmael Shemot tries to find a crime more befitting Hashem's harsh response, and proposes that Moshe has sealed a pact with Yitro that one of his sons would never be circumcised.
• Sinned in delaying his mission – RashbamShemot 4:14Shemot 4:24About R. Shemuel b. Meir connects the sin to the larger context of the story and the national mission upon which Moshe was embarking.  He suggests that Moshe sinned in bringing his family to Egypt as this caused him to tarry and delay the redemption of Israel.¹³
• Miscalculation – Ibn EzraShemot Second Commentary 4:20About R. Avraham ibn Ezra implies that Moshe did not so much sin as make an error in judgment.  As bringing Moshe's family to Egypt might have demoralized the nation,¹⁴ Hashem told Moshe to circumcise his son enroute so as to ensure that the family remain behind.
• No sin – Ibn Kaspi Shemot 4:24Bemidbar 20:10About R. Yosef ibn Kaspi goes further to suggest that Moshe did not err at all. Moshe's anxiety at having to confront Paroh and warn him of his son's impending death is what made Moshe gravely ill.

• Moshe's Misstep and Mei Merivah (Bemidbar 20) – In this story Hashem explicitly punishes Moshe (and Aharon), telling them "לֹא הֶאֱמַנְתֶּם בִּי לְהַקְדִּישֵׁנִי לְעֵינֵי בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל".  It is not at all clear, however, what specific action constituted the sin, and why this error was so grievous that it resulted in the brothers being refused entry into the Land.
• Sin – Commentators mine almost every word of the text, raising numerous possible sins, including: lack of faith (RashbamBemidbar 20:10-12About R. Shemuel b. Meir and SefornoBemidbar 20:8About R. Ovadyah Seforno),¹⁵ desecration of Hashem's name (R. ChananelBemidbar 20:8About R. Chananel b. Chushiel, RashiBemidbar 20:11-12About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, R. Yosef Bekhor ShorDevarim 1:37About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor),¹⁶ excessive anger (RambamShemonah Perakim chapter 4Moreh Nevukhim 2:35About R. Moshe b. Maimon and Ibn KaspiBemidbar 20:10About R. Yosef ibn Kaspi),¹⁷ and faulty leadership (Minchah BelulahBemidbar 20:12About R. Avraham Porto).¹⁸ 
• No Sin – RalbagBemidbar 20:8About R. Levi b. Gershom and Abarbanel also raise the possibility that Moshe did not sin at all in this episode and that his being denied entry was either collective punishment for sins of the nation, or due to to previous misdeeds.

Errors in Judgment

Several commentators suggest that, at times, Moshe might have made errors in judgement:

• Mystery at the Malon – See Ibn Ezra's understanding of the story discussed above.
• Story of the Spies – See Abarbanel who suggests that the nation requested spies to determine the route of the conquest and which cities they should attack, but Moshe, on his own, added that they should also evaluate the strength of the people and the fortifications of the cities and the like. Though Moshe had good intentions, it was this further scrutiny that led to the spies' failure.¹⁹

Anger

Several commentators have faulted Moshe for unwarranted anger:

• Explicit cases – The Torah explicitly notes Moshe's wrath in three places:²⁰  Shemot 16:20 (after the nation leaves over from the manna), Vayikra 10:16 (when Aharon's sons burn the goat of the sin-offering), and Bemidbar 31:14 (when the officers leave the women alive in the war with Midyan).
• Numerous Rabbinic sources criticize Moshe for this loss of control and say that Moshe's anger caused him to forget either the Halakhah or the need to convey it to the people – see SifraShemini 2:12About Sifra, Sifre BemidbarBemidbar 157About Sifre Bemidbar, Bavli PesachimPesachim 66bAbout the Bavli, Vayikra Rabbah13:1About Vayikra Rabbah.
• However, RalbagVayikra 10:20Shemini Toelet 9About R. Levi b. Gershom excuses such outbursts by saying that Moshe was so spiritual that he was angered even by what appeared to be slight deviations from Halakhah.²¹

• Non explicit cases – There are a number of additional cases where some commentators claim that Moshe's temper got the better of him:
• Moshe's Killing of the Egyptian – R" Y Bekhor ShorShemot 2:11About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor attributes Moshe's killing of the Egyptian taskmaster in Shemot 2 to his anger boiling over out of mercy for his brethren, rather than to a strict sense of law and order.  [It is not clear, though, if he necessarily views this as a flaw.]
• Breaking the tablets – RambanShemot 32:16Devarim 9:17About R. Moshe b. Nachman attributes Moshe's breaking of the tablets to a loss of control upon seeing the nation sin with the Calf.  Moshe was so upset that he could not hold back²² and smashed the tablets.²³
• Moshe and Mei Merivah – RambamShemonah Perakim chapter 4About R. Moshe b. Maimon and Ibn KaspiBemidbar 20:10About R. Yosef ibn Kaspi assert that Moshe's sin at Mei Merivah was his excessive anger, leading him to inappropriately refer to he nation as "rebels" and to defy God's instructions by hitting the rock (Bemidbar 20:10-11).²⁴

Speech Impediment

The three verses of Shemot 4:10, 6:12, and 6:30 describe Moshe's speech impediment using the terms of "כְבַד פֶּה וּכְבַד לָשׁוֹן" and "עֲרַל שְׂפָתָיִם‎". Exegetes debate whether or not this disability was of a physical nature, and why Hashem would choose a disabled messenger to be His spokesman. See Moshe's Speech Impediment.

• Physical disability – According to Shemot Rabbah1:26About Shemot Rabbah, R. ChananelCited by R. Bachya Shemot 4:10About R. Chananel b. Chushiel and R. Yosef Bekhor ShorShemot 4:10-11About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor, Moshe's speech impediment was of a physical nature and involved difficulties in letter pronunciation or stuttering. The RanDerashot HaRan 5About R. Nissim Gerondi
  states that Hashem intentionally chose a leader who was not a charismatic speaker to insure that all would recognize that the miracles of the Exodus were brought about not by oratorical talents but rather by Hashem's will.²⁵
• Non-physical disability – RashbamShemot 4:10About R. Shemuel b. Meir deems it impossible that Hashem would elect to transmit the Torah through a stutterer, leading him to posit that Moshe's challenge was an inability to speak Egyptian well.²⁶ Lekach TovShemot 4:10About R. Toviah b. Eliezer and RalbagShemot Beur HaMilot 4:10About R. Levi b. Gershom more simply suggest that Moshe was not a gifted orator and incapable of ordering his speech in a clear and organized manner. Ralbag explains that this was a result of Moshe's high spiritual level which led him to have difficulties in mundane dealings with humans.²⁷

Birth and Upbringing

Miraculous Birth?

Commentators divide in how they view Moshe's birth and early years, with some presenting every aspect of these as being filled with miracles and others seeing them in a more natural light.

• Yocheved's Age²⁸ –  RashiShemot 2:1-3About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, following Bavli SotahSotah 12a-bAbout Bavli Sotah, asserts that Yocheved bore Moshe at the advanced age of 130. Ibn EzraBereshit First Commentary 46:27About R. Avraham ibn Ezra disagrees, claiming that if there had been such a miracle the Torah would have shared it.²⁹
• Premature Birth? Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan)Shemot 2:1-2About Targum Yerushalmi (Yonatan) and RashiShemot 2:1-3About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, noting that Yocheved hid Moshe for 3 months, assert that Moshe was born prematurely, after just six months of pregnancy. Ibn Ezra Shemot First Commentary 2:2About R. Avraham ibn Ezradisagrees, pointing out that the Egyptians had no way of knowing when a woman conceives.
• "כִּי טוֹב הוּא" – While Bavli SotahSotah 12a-bAbout Bavli Sotah and Rashi Shemot 2:1-3About R. Shelomo Yitzchakiclaim that this phrase implies that some miracle occurred upon Mosh'e birth, the house was filled light or that Moshe was born circumcised, RashbamShemot 2:2About R. Shemuel b. Meir and Ibn EzraShemot First Commentary 2:2About R. Avraham ibn Ezra more simply claim that Yocheved saw that Moshe was unblemished³⁰ and handsome.
• "וַתִּשְׁלַח אֶת אֲמָתָהּ" – Bavli SotahSotah 12a-bAbout Bavli Sotah understands this phrase to mean that the arm of Paroh's daughter stretched to reach Baby Moshe, while Ibn EzraShemot First Commentary 2:5-6About R. Avraham ibn Ezra explain that she sent a maidservant to fetch the baby. The varying positions impact a second question – was Moshe's true identity a secret known only to the princess, or were others aware of it?
• "וַתִּרְאֵהוּ אֶת הַיֶּלֶד" – RashiShemot 2:6-7About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, following Bavli SotahSotah 12a-bAbout Bavli Sotah, understands the seemingly extraneous "וַתִּרְאֵהוּ" to mean that Paroh's daughter saw the Divine presence with Moshe. Ibn EzraShemot First Commentary 2:5-6About R. Avraham ibn Ezra claims, instead, that the doubling is for clarification.
• "מֵינֶקֶת מִן הָעִבְרִיֹּת" – According to Bavli SotahSotah 12a-bAbout Bavli Sotah and RashiShemot 2:6-7About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, the princess asked for a Hebrew wet nurse because Moshe had refused all the Egyptian ones.  A mouth that was to speak with God could not be sullied. Akeidat YitzchakShemot Peirush 2:1About R. Yitzchak Arama, instead, suggests that due to Paroh's decree, there were many Israelite mothers bereft of their children who were available to nurse others.

Palace Upbringing

Why might Hashem have orchestrated events so that Moshe would be brought up specifically in the palace of a king?

• Education – PhiloOn the Life of Moses I 20-24About Philo and RalbagShemot Toalot 2:5Vayikra Toalot 10About R. Levi b. Gershom point to the royal education received by Moshe, which provided him with both much knowledge and vital leadership skills.
• Self confidence – Both Ibn Ezra Shemot Second Commentary 2:3About R. Avraham ibn Ezraand RalbagShemot Toalot 2:5Vayikra Toalot 10About R. Levi b. Gershom point out that by growing up in the palace, Moshe acquired a self-confidence³¹ that he would never have received had he been raised a slave.³²
• Outsider status – Ibn Ezra Shemot Second Commentary 2:3About R. Avraham ibn Ezra further suggests that effective leadership requires that others fear and look up to you.  Had the nation known Moshe from his youth, they would not be able to view him as their superior.

Family Ties

What did Moshe know of his biological family? Did his family maintain a relationship with him after he was adopted by the princess?  Shemot 4:14 implies that he and Aharon had a close relationship, but if he grew up in the palace where did this come from? These questions are related to a textual ambiguity. Shemot 2:10 states, "וַיִּגְדַּל הַיֶּלֶד וַתְּבִאֵהוּ לְבַת פַּרְעֹה וַיְהִי לָהּ לְבֵן".  How old was Moshe when he "grew up" and was adopted by the princess?

• Moved after weaning – Shemot Rabbah1:261:261:285:8About Shemot Rabbah suggests that the phrase "וַיִּגְדַּל הַיֶּלֶד" refers to Moshe's weaning and that Moshe moved to the palace at the age of two. If so, it is possible that Moshe did not really know his family. Shadal,³³ however, asserts that Yocheved visited her son from time to time, and that Moshe thus had a continued connection to his family.³⁴
• Moved as a youth – Alternatively, though, one could suggest that "וַיִּגְדַּל הַיֶּלֶד" means that Moshe only left his home after he matured and was no longer a young boy. See R. Chama in Shemot Rabbah5:2About Shemot Rabbah who suggests that Moshe was 12 when taken from his parents' home.
• Never moved – HaKorem uniquely suggests that Moshe actually never moved to live in the palace.  According to him, the word "וַיְהִי לָהּ לְבֵן" in Shemot 2:10 refers to Yocheved, who requested of Paroh's daughter that she (Yocheved) receive the boy as a son in place of her nursing fee. Alternatively, the phrase "וַיְהִי לָהּ לְבֵן" does refer to the princess, but might merely mean that she served as a "godmother" while Moshe lived in his real home.³⁵

Religious Identity

Journey to Belief

At what age did Moshe recognize that he was an Israelite?  How did he know that the Israelites were "his brothers"? Had he any connection to his nation and Hebrew roots while growing up? What did he know of Hashem? Though most readers assume that Moshe was "religious from birth", the verses are less clear.

• Always viewed himself as Israelite – According to those opinions that Moshe lived at home for a significant period of time or that he never moved to the palace at all (see discussion above), Moshe was likely always very connected to his nation, its values, and its monotheistic belief system.
• Cognizant of Israelite identity only later  – RambanShemot 2:11About R. Moshe b. Nachman, in contrast, maintains that Moshe first found out that he was Israelite in later years, right before he went out to "see his brothers". This would suggest that he knew almost nothing about his nation or its belief system when fleeing to Midyan. If so, Moshe's story might be one of a journey towards belief rather than of a leader born into it. It is perhaps first at the "burning bush," when Hashem reveals Himself to Moshe, that their relationship begins.
• Somewhere in the middle -– Ralbag takes a middle position, implying that though Moshe grew up in the palace, he nonetheless knew about his Israelite roots early on. He even raises the possibility that everyone in the palace might have known that Moshe was an Israelite.³⁶  It is not clear according to this reading, however, how this knowledge impacted Moshe. What did Moshe knew about Hashem? Did he prefer to identify as Hebrew or Egyptian?

The issue is related to several other questions:

• When Moshe saved the Hebrew from the taskmaster, were his actions motivated by a feeling of brotherhood or just a strong sense of justice?
• When the daughters of Reuel speak about Moshe's aiding them, they say, "אִישׁ מִצְרִי הִצִּילָנוּ".  Does this imply that Moshe, too, viewed himself first and foremost as an Egyptian?
• How is one to understand Moshe's marriage to Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest? [See discussion below.]
• "גֵּר הָיִיתִי בְּאֶרֶץ נׇכְרִיָּה" - In naming his son Gershom, was Moshe suggesting that he felt like a foreigner in Midyan because they were not Israelite (Malbim), or because they were not Egyptian?

Intermarriage?

The question of whether Moshe intermarried arises regarding both his marriage to Zipporah, described in Shemot 2, and his marriage to the Cushite woman, alluded to in Bemidbar 12:

I. Moshe's Marriage to Zipporah – How could Moshe marry the daughter of an idolatrous priest?  [For elaboration, see Moshe's Family Life, Zipporah, and Yitro – Religious Identity.]

• Zipporah was monotheistic – Several sources maintain that Zipporah either converted (Midrash Tadshe) or was a monotheist from beforehand (R. Mubashir HaLevi)Critique of the Writings of R. Saadia Gaon by R. Mubashir HaLevi p. 107About R. Mubashir HaLevi. R. SaadiaCritique of the Writings of R. Saadia Gaon by R. Mubashir HaLevi p. 107About R. Saadia Gaon, Tanchuma and Shemot Rabbah go further to suggest that Yitro, too, was monotheistic and/or converted from his pagan beliefs before meeting Moshe.
• Zipporah was a heathen – Others suggest that Zipporah was idolatrous when she married, and that perhaps even afterwards she might have continued to cling to her old beliefs (see Shadal and the opinion rejected by Ibn Ezra).  This position explains and justifies Moshe's marriage in varying ways:
• No prohibition before Sinai – Rashi Sanhedrin 82aAbout R. Shelomo Yitzchakiexplains that before the revelation at Sinai, there was no prohibition of intermarriage.  Everyone had the status of Noachides, and Zipporah converted with the entire nation at Mt. Sinai. This led Moshe to look for a woman of good character rather than
• No choice – Ibn EzraShemot Second Commentary 28:1About R. Avraham ibn Ezra defends Moshe by claiming that there was nobody else to marry in Midyan.
• Moshe unaffiliated – It is also possible that Moshe had only limited religious affiliation when he married Zipporah, and that had this been later in life he would not have married her.³⁷

II. Moshe's Marriage to the Cushite – Bemidbar 12:1 shares that Miryam and Aharon complained about "the Cushite woman which Moshe took". This is the first time that this marriage is spoken of in Tanakh.  When and why did Moshe marry a Cushite?  The fact that the siblings gossip about it in Bemidbar would suggest that it took place after the Revelation at Sinai.  If so, why was this legitimate? Were the siblings not justified in their critique?

• No  intermarriage – According to the Sifre12:1157About Sifre Bemidbar and RashiBemidbar 12:1About R. Shelomo Yitzchaki, the verse is actually speaking not of a new wife but rather of Zipporah.  Moreover, the siblings gossip not about their marriage but rather their separation. According to these sources, then, Moshe never married a Cushite and the question of the legitimacy of such a marriage never arises.
• Intermarriage – RashbamShemot 4:14Bemidbar 12:1About R. Shemuel b. Meir and R. Yosef Bekhor ShorBemidbar 12:1-2About R. Yosef Bekhor Shor, in contrast, assume that Moshe did indeed intermarry and it was about this that Miryam and Aharon complained. If so, though, one must wonder why Hashem does not seem to share their negative evaluation of the marriage. R. Yosef Bekhor Shor leaves this question unanswered, saying merely: "ואעפ"י שלא נודע למה היתה סיבה זאת של משה, אין גלויין לנו כל הסודות". Rashbam, though, suggests that the marriage took place long before the revelation at Sinai, and moreover, that Moshe never consummated the marriage.  For further discussion, see Miryam's Critique of Moshe and his Cushite Marriage.

Was Moshe's Son Uncircumcised and Why?

• See the various approaches in Mystery at the Malon

Marriage and Family Life

Marriage

Divorce?

Children

In-laws

Siblings

¹ Was Yehoshua's making the sun stand still or Eliyahu's reviving of the dead any less remarkable than Moshe's miracles?

² Some commentators also suggest that in certain cases, it is possible that Moshe might have not been privy to Hashem's full intentions and that he did not always understand the reasons behind Hashem's actions.  In these cases, though, Moshe is not misinterpreting Hashem's speech. He is simply not aware of the larger picture. Thus, the RanDerashot HaRan 11About R. Nissim Gerondi assumes that the entire ruse regarding the three day journey and the borrowing of the Egyptians' vessels was intended to induce the Egyptians to chase after the nation (in order to retrieve their loaned belongings) so that they would drown in Yam Suf. This goal, though, might have been unknown to Moshe,  "וכונת כל אלו הדברים, היתה נעלמת מישראל, ואולי גם ממשה". [See A Three Day Journey and Reparations and Despoiling Egypt.]
See also R. Yosef AlboSefer HaIkkarim 4:25About R. Yosef Albo who opines that Moshe was surprised at Hashem's command that the nation ask permission to cross through the lands of Edom and Moav only to then veer from them, being unaware of Hashem's larger goal. Only later did he realize that Hashem had orchestrated this so as to harden Sichon's heart into thinking that the nation was weak and would be easy to defeat.

³ This interpretation is cited by Ramban who apparently obtained a copy of R. Chananel's commentary only upon his arrival in Israel. This passage is one of Ramban's Eretz Yisrael additions to his commentary. For further discussion, see Ramban's Updates, and specifically Ramban Bemidbar 16:21.

⁴ These sources claim that Hashem was never unjust as He had never planned to wipe out the innocent.

⁵ See Moshe's words in Bemidbar 14:15, "וְהֵמַתָּה אֶת הָעָם הַזֶּה כְּאִישׁ אֶחָד".

⁶ Cf. R. Mubashir's position regarding Zipporah's religious identity discussed in Moshe's Family Life.

⁷ Ramban's commentary on this verse was augmented significantly upon his arrival in Israel. For further discussion, see Ramban's Updates, and specifically Ramban Bemidbar 16:21.

⁸ See also Abarbanel with regards to Korach's rebellion, "והראב"ע פירש שלא היתה כוונתו לכלות אלא קרח ועדתו ושמשה לא הבין הכוונה האלהית ולכך השיבו כן והוא זר מאד".  As far as the more general question of whether prophets as a whole (i.e. not just Moshe) can err in their understanding of Hashem's will, see Prophetic Actions Without Explicit Divine Sanction and Prophecy.

⁹ See R"E Samet, "דברי משה לבני גד ולבני ראובן", who suggests Moshe was haunted by the debacle of the Spies and therefore read their mistakes back into the words of the two tribes. He writes, "משה רדוף בזיכרון חטא המרגלים, והוא רואה את צלו גם במעשיהם של בני הדור החדש העומד להיכנס לארץ.."

¹⁰ The tribes really did not initially intend to join their brethren in the Conquest.

¹¹ They rejected His Promised Land.

¹² The Midrash contains a picturesque account of Moshe's dialogue with Hashem before his death, where Moshe pleads with Hashem not to die. Hashem responds that he is deserving of death for this very incident, telling Moshe, "כלום אמרתי לך שתהרוג את המצרי".

¹³ He compares Moshe's sin to those of Bilam, Yaakov and Yonah who similarly tried to avoid fulfilling the mission assigned them by Hashem, and who were similarly punished. Each is put into a potentially fatal situation, and, like Moshe, each of Yaakov and Bilam are also injured or touched on the thigh. It is possible that in all three cases the leg is specifically chosen as a "measure for measure" punishment for not going to do what Hashem desired. For more on Rashbam's reading of each of these stories, see Wrestling With Angels and Men and Why Was Hashem Angry at Bilam.

¹⁴ The people might have believed that Moshe was merely coming to live with his family in Egypt and that the redemption was not imminent.

¹⁵ They suggest that Moshe's hitting the rock rather than speaking to it was the problematic action. Moshe doubted whether simply talking to the rock would elicit the miracle.

¹⁶ According to Rashi hitting rather than speaking to the rock minimized the miracle and caused a lesser sanctification of Hashem's name. R. Yosef Bekhor Shor explains instead that Moshe's posing his words, "...הֲמִן הַסֶּלַע הַזֶּה", as a question caused the people to think that he doubted that Hashem could indeed bring forth water from the stone. Finally, R. Chananel points to Moshe's problematic use of the word "נוֹצִיא" specifically. Moshe's saying "we will bring forth water" led the nation to wonder whether he and Aharon, rather than Hashem, were the source of the miracle.

¹⁷ According to Rambam and Ibn Kaspi the nation did not deserve rebuke for their complaints as the lack of water legitimized their murmurings.  As such, Moshe's angry retort "listen you rebels" was unwarranted.

¹⁸ see above that Minchah Belulah blames Moshe and Aharon for not standing up to the people on their own, but instead "fleeing" to the Tent of Meeting.

¹⁹ Cf. R. Medan in The Story of the Spies in Bemidbar and Devarim who suggests that the spies were sent on a dual mission: a military reconnaissance mission as well as a surveying mission to determine the tribal inheritances and that Moshe erred in combining the two.  Had the missions remained separate, maybe the mishap of the Spies would never have occurred.

²⁰ See below that there is one other episode in which Tanakh explicitly presents Moshe as filled with anger.  Upon seeing the people worship the Golden Calf, Moshe's ire is raised: "וַיְהִי כַּאֲשֶׁר קָרַב אֶל הַמַּחֲנֶה וַיַּרְא אֶת הָעֵגֶל וּמְחֹלֹת וַיִּחַר אַף מֹשֶׁה". In this case, though, no  commentators criticize Moshe's reaction as being unwarranted.

²¹ This is consistent with Ralbag's explanations of Moshe's other flaws – see the discussions below regarding Moshe and Yitro's Advice and Moshe's Speech Impediment.

²² Ramban uses the language of "לא יכול להתאפק".

²³ Though the verse explicitly mentions Moshe's anger, many other commentators suggest that the breaking of the tablets themselves was not a purely emotional response but rather an intentional, though-out action.

²⁴ This second point is made only by Ibn Kaspi.

²⁵ R. Yosef Bekhor Shor similarly suggests that Hashem wanted to demonstrate that the Divine will could be realized even via a messenger lacking a silver tongue.

²⁶ Having left Egypt while still young, he was not as fluent as needed to feel comfortable speaking in the king's palace.

²⁷ See Ralbag's similar take on Moshe's administrative shortcomings in Did Moshe Need Yitro's Advice.

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²⁹ He points out that this would have been an even greater miracle than Sarah bearing Yitzchak (at the age of 90). Since the Torah highlights the miraculous nature of Sarah's childbearing, it should have done the same by Yocheved..

³⁰ As Rashbam assumes that Moshe was born prematurely, he suggests that the Torah is sharing that nonetheless he was complete.

³¹ Ralbag emפhasizes how vital this would be when Moshe needed to stand up against Paroh. See also RambanShemot 2:11About R. Moshe b. Nachman, "כי לפני מלכים יתיצב".

³² Ibn Ezra writes, "אולי סבב השם זה שיגדל משה בבית המלכות להיות נפשו העליונה בדרך מלכות והרגילות, ולא תהיה נפשו שפלה רגילה להיות בבית עבדים".

³³ See also Abarbanel who also posits that Moshe had a continued relationship with his family.

³⁴ He points out that it was common for nursemaids to visit with the babies they had nursed, so this would not have been strange.

³⁵ This reading assumes that Moshe had a close relationship to his family, but probably no relationship to Paroh.  It easily explains how Moshe knew about "his brothers" (verse 11), why Paroh was willing to kill Moshe for killing a "mere Egyptian", and how he had an apparently close relationship to Aharon (Shemot 4:14)

³⁶ Alternatively, he suggests that perhaps the princess had told him.

³⁷ See discussion above and see Bavli Bava Batra which suggests that because Moshe married the daughter of an idolater he had a descendant who was an idolatrous priest.